Palm Kernel Research Articles

Influence of the Addition of Palm Kernel Shell and Ash on Concrete Performances: Study of Correlations between Intrinsic Material Properties

Sustainable development objectives in the construction sector is currently hampered by the high cost of materials (cement, aggregates) and the environmental impact of waste in some developing countries. The obtained results in this work on the influence of ash (PKSA) and palm kernel shell (PKS) used as a partial addition of cement and aggregates in concrete composition, enable their valorization as local materials to manufacturing the lightweight concrete with low-cost. This is an interesting contribution to the development of sustainable construction and environmental protection. The used palm kernel shells are produced in the palm oil industry in Republic of Congo. The highest values for density Cd(2348kg/m3), compressive strength Cs(27MPa) and splitting tensile strength Ts(2.4MPa) for concrete using PKSA were obtained at 2.5%. Those for concrete using PKS were obtained at 5 %, i.e. Cd(2165kg/m3), Cs(22MPa) and Ts(1.90MPa). the increase in concrete properties with PKSA compared to PKS is explained by the pozzolanic reaction of the palm kernel ash, which acts as a hydraulic binder. Correlations between fundamental concrete properties reliably describe the influence of PKS and PKSA, with a coefficient of determination R2 (0.9) superior at 0.5; the obtained mathematical models to prediction the concrete properties are a significant contribution for engineers. PKS is a concrete plasticizer, PKSA is a concrete setting and hardening accelerator. The production of low-carbon concrete with PKSA addition is a major step forward for the concrete industry.

A parametric study on chemical activator selection and soaking procedure development for barium incorporation in concurrent activated and surface modified palm kernel shell derived activated carbon

The concurrent activation and surface modification (CAM) process is an integrated process used to synthesise palm kernel shell derived activated carbon (PKSdAC) in this study. CAM involves chemical activation and surface modification via metal impregnation in one process. This study investigated the usage of different acids as chemical activators and different soaking procedures for impregnating barium (Ba) in CAM-PKSdAC. It shows that chemical impregnation of PKS using 10% sulphuric acid (H2SO4) mass loading via two soaking steps can impregnate a high Ba amount of 0.86–2.98 wt. % in CAM-PKSdAC, compared to one soaking step. The two soaking steps procedure reduced the overage formation of BaSO4 from sealing the pores of PKS. Comparing HCl and H2SO4, at 30% acid mass loading, the impregnation of PKS with H2SO4 produced a higher impregnated Ba amount in CAM-PKSdAC. BaSO4 generated from the reaction between H2SO4 on the PKS surface with BaCl2 solution causes a reduction reaction at high temperatures. BaSO4 reacted with a carbon-reducing agent and is reduced to barium sulphide (BaS), impregnating Ba on CAM-PKSdAC. In conclusion, H2SO4 was found to be the suitable chemical activator with two soaking steps for the CAM process.

Experimental Investigation of Sulfur and Nitrogen Oxide Emissions and Corrosion Propensity During the Combustion of Coals and Biomass Fuels

ABSTRACT The increasing use of biomass in Indonesian coal-fired power plants, mainly through co-firing, presents challenges due to different fuel characteristics, which can affect gas emissions, ash deposition, and combustion efficiency. This study assesses flue gas emissions (SO2 and NOx) and corrosion tendencies of various biomass types and coal. The study begins with characteristic testing and ash analysis of coal and biomass samples, including proximate, ultimate, and calorific value analyses, to determine their suitability as fuels. Preliminary calculations predict flue gas emissions and ash deposit formation, followed by laboratory-scale combustion experiments using a DTF to assess flue gas and ash deposit characteristics. The results show that sulfur in biomass is converted to the gas phase up to 99%, while in coal, it is converted up to 95% at high temperatures. NOx levels are primarily affected by the nitrogen contents of the fuels; for instance, Coal-B at 0.88 wt% produces less NOx than solid recovered fuel (SRF) and refused derived fuel (RDF) with 1.73 wt% and 1.51 wt%, respectively, yet still generates higher emissions than the other three biomass types. In general, wood chips (WC), rise husk (RH), and palm kernel shell (PKS) emit 30–80% less flue gas compared to coal. However, ash deposition results indicate that PKS, SRF, and RDF exhibit corrosion tendencies due to the dominance of albite (NaAlSi3O8) in the mineral phase. Additionally, the high chlorine content in SRF (0.544 wt%) and RDF (0.224 wt%) leads to the formation of sticky ash deposits, which potentially impact heat transfer surfaces. These findings contribute to identifying suitable biomass types for both co-firing or dedicated combustion in coal-fired power plants.

The Assessment of Mixing Solid Waste from Palm Kernel Cake and Indigofera Zollingeriana as Chicken Feed towards the Free-Range Chicken Growth Rate

The Assessment of Mixing Solid Waste from Palm Kernel Cake and Indigofera Zollingeriana as Chicken Feed towards the Free-Range Chicken Growth Rate

Hemoparasitism in grazing cattle and risk factors associated with husbandry management in an endemic area of Eastern Colombia

Vector-borne pathogens induce hemoparasitism in cattle causing substantial economic losses in tropical and subtropical areas. Infectious cattle actively contribute to maintaining the transmission cycle, and the presence of these animals must be associated with husbandry management and environmental changes. In the present study, we conducted a cross-sectional study sampling 1,000 bovines to identify infectious cattle diagnosed by a direct technique and employed a dichotomic questionnaire for association analyses, hierarchical clustering, and Principal Component Analysis (PCA). Overall prevalence with infectious cattle was 34.99%, where 97% of the farms had at least one infectious animal per genera, and the prevalence in properties ranged between 16.39 and 53.85%. Of these animals, 26.20% tested positive for Anaplasma sp., 8.40% for Babesia spp., and 1.30% for Trypanosome spp. The main co-infection showed 5% Anaplasma sp. – Trypanosome spp., followed by 4% Babesia spp. – Trypanosome spp. These bovines showed association with the use of the Jersey breed (OR = 2.016 C.I:1.188–3.419), selling animals for replacement (OR = 1.417 CI:1.022–1.965), participation in livestock exhibitions (OR = 2.009 CI:1.262–3.199), premises with burials (OR = 2,064 CR: 1.414–3.011), use of palm kernel (OR = 1.935 C.I:1.198–3.124), and the use of ivermectin (OR = 1.548 CI: 1.085–2.210) as a susceptibility. The hierarchical clustering revealed clusters among properties with different hemoparasite prevalence, with notable co-infections observed. The subsequent PCA identified that significant risk factors contributed to hemoparasitism positivity. We conclude that infectious cattle in the endemic area showed an association with husbandry management that permits the success of vector and maintenance of the enzootic or epizootic cycle in the herds.

Nickel recovery in ferronickel concentrate by green selective reduction of nickel laterite

Nickel laterite is typically processed into ferronickel through a pyrometallurgical method involving high temperatures and the use of fossil fuels, such as coals or cokes. Unfortunately, this process releases emissions like CO2, SO2, and NOx into the environment. This study explores a sustainable approach for nickel laterite processing by investigating low-temperature selective reduction using various biomass reductants. The materials, including saprolitic nickel ore and biomass types (palm kernel shell charcoal or PSC, lamtoro wood charcoal, coconut shell charcoal, and rubber wood charcoal), undergo pelletization, selective reduction at 1150 °C, and wet magnetic separation. PSC biomass is superior to other biomass due to its 217.2 m2/g specific surface area value. Optimal conditions were achieved using 0.3 stoichiometric PSC, along with the addition of 10 wt% of sodium sulfate as an additive. This has led to a nickel mass fraction of 26.0 wt% and a recovery rate of 27.4 %.

Conversion of palm kernel shell to sustainable energy and the effect of wet synthesized nanoparticles of iron on its thermal degradation kinetics

Pisifera Palm kernel shells (PPKS) were torrefied at 260, 280, and 300 °C, and ASTM methods were used to determine variations in their ultimate and proximate parameters. Iron nanoparticles were synthesized via coprecipitation of FeCl3.6H2O and NaBH4, characterized, and used as catalysts in the thermal degradation of torrefied PPKS. Torrefied PPKS samples showed moderate MC (9.26–10.73 %), high carbon content (46.74 %), AC (2.77–3.39 %), VM (49.48–54.12 %), and FC (31.76 %–38.49 %). At 300 °C, the calorific value of the untreated PPKS increased by 13.3 % to 18.02 kJ/mol, making it suitable as a solid fuel. An increase in heating rate enhances faster decomposition and higher devolatization of torrefied PPKS at lower temperatures. Hemicellulosic components degrade at a reduced temperature as compared to cellulosic and lignin components. The 47.58 % Fe in the nanoparticle made it a good catalyst for the thermal degradation of PPKS. The Ea expended on catalyzed torrefied PPKS was lower as compared to torrefied PPKS calculated via the Coats-Redfern kinetic model. Torrefaction improved untreated PPKS by achieving higher fuel quality and calorific value, suitable physical properties, and a suitable chemical composition. The nano-Fe was suitable to reduce Ea needed for the thermal degradation of torrefied PPKS.

A novel combination of wetland plants (Eichhornia crassipes) and biochar derived from palm kernel shells modified with melamine for the removal of paraquat from aqueous medium: a green and sustainable approach

Herbicide contamination in aquatic systems has become a global concern due to their long- term persistence, accumulation and health risks to humans. Paraquat, a widely used and cost-effective nonselective herbicide, is frequently applied in agricultural fields for pest control. Consequently, the removal of paraquat from contaminated water is crucial. This research presents a sustainable and environmentally benign method for paraquat removal from aqueous system by integrating wetland plants (Eichhornia crassipes) with biochar derived from melamine-modified palm kernel shells. The prepared biochar was characterized by using various analytical techniques. The effectiveness of biochar in enhancing phytoremediation was evaluated through a series of experiments, showing significant paraquat removal efficiencies of 99.7, 98.3, and 82.8% at different paraquat concentrations 50, 100, and 150 mg L−1, respectively. Additionally, present study examined the impact of biochar on the growth of E. crassipes, highlighting its potential to reduce the toxic effects of paraquat even present at higher concentrations. The paraquat removal mechanism was elucidated, focusing on the synergistic role of biochar adsorption and phytoremediation capability of E. crassipes. This innovative approach is an effective, feasible, sustainable and eco-friendly technique that can contribute to the development of advanced and affordable water remediation processes for widespread application.

Analysis of Liquid Smoke Grade Characteristics from Coconut Shells and Palm Kernel Shell Waste Through a Slow Pyrolysis Process

This research was motivated by the abundance of biomass plantations in Indonesia. Accumulated biomass waste will cause environmental problems. Biomass processing can resolve this issue, by producing functionally and economically valuable products. The purpose of this research was to increase the value of biomass by processing it as liquid smoke through pyrolysis and then proceeding to the purification stage. The purification method applied in this research was a combination of distillation and adsorption processes using natural zeolite. The variables of this research were: two types of biomass, namely coconut shells and palm kernel shells, and liquid smoke grade variations. The analysis parameters were: pH, viscosity, density, acid content, and phenol analysis as well as GC-MS. The characteristics analysis results showed that all liquid smoke samples met the Japanese liquid smoke standard. Based on pH, acid, and phenol analysis, the liquid smoke from the coconut shells sample had better quality compared to the liquid smoke from palm kernel shells, namely with pH 2.36, acid content 0.26 mg/mL, and phenol 2,368.75 ppm. The GC-MS test results indicated that grade-1 liquid smoke from both samples contained antibacterial compounds, such as phosphonic acid, formic acid, and carbamic acid, which have the potential to inhibit bacterial growth.

Gaseous air quality and health risk assessment of high school kitchens in the Kumasi Metropolis

Cooking is a major factor that affects the quality of indoor air especially in kitchens. It is a daily activity essential for supplying the requisite energy and nutrients for living through food consumption. Exposure to air pollutants from cooking with solid fuels in domestic and commercial kitchens is a leading health risk in developing nations like Ghana. Real-time monitoring of gaseous pollutants (CO, SO2, NO2) was done during eight hours of occupational cooking in different cookstove kitchens of 14 Senior High Schools in the Kumasi Metropolis, Ghana. The traditional and improved cookstove kitchens were fueled by firewood whereas the briquette cookstove kitchens were fueled by palm kernel shell briquette. The observed median concentrations in the kitchens were 0.43–39.44 mg m−3 for CO, 0.07–0.36 mg m−3 for NO2, and 0.19–0.61 mg m−3 for SO2. The concentrations in the traditional and briquette cookstove kitchens exceeded the respective World Health Organization (WHO) thresholds of 4 mg m−3 for CO, 0.025 mg m−3 for NO2, and 0.04 mg m−3 for SO2 mg m−3. The air quality index of traditional cookstove kitchens was classified as hazardous for human occupancy. Hazard indices > 1 revealed the likelihood of significant non-carcinogenic health risks for cooks’ occupational exposure to gaseous pollutants in all the cookstove kitchens. This study is essential as it informs on gaseous air quality during large-scale cooking within institutional kitchens with different cookstove types in a developing country. The study fills a gap in literature by providing real-time concentrations of gaseous air pollutants to which cooks in high school kitchens of a developing country are occupationally exposed. The study recommends the urgent transition of large-scale kitchens in developing countries to cleaner energies and cookstove types, alongside regular monitoring and enforcement of air quality guidelines, to safeguard occupational health.

In-silico strategies for probing fatty acids-based inhibitors from palm Kernel (Elaeis guineensis) Oil against Aldo-Keto Reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3)

In-silico strategies for probing fatty acids-based inhibitors from palm Kernel (Elaeis guineensis) Oil against Aldo-Keto Reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3)

Design of an agro-industrial by-products-based media for the production of probiotic bacteria for fish nutrition

Probiotic production in commercial culture media is expensive, so, it is necessary to design culture media based on “low-cost” components like agro-industrial by-products. Therefore, this study aimed to design an agro-industrial by-product-based culture media using whey, sugarcane molasses, and palm kernel cake as components to produce Lactococcus lactis A12, Priestia megaterium M4, and Priestia sp. M10 isolated from Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) associated gut microbiota. Higher bacterial concentrations were achieved at high whey concentrations and low concentrations of sugarcane molasses and palm kernel cake (PKC) using agitation. The optimal conditions were whey, 3.84% w/v; sugarcane molasses, 7.39% w/v; PKC, 0.77% w/v; and agitation speed, 75 RPM. Bacterial growth under optimal conditions was compared to that in commercial Brain–Heart Infusion (BHI) broth. L. lactis A12 showed similar growth in the optimal media and BHI. The estimated cost of the culture media based on component prices was USD $ 3.01/L, which is 86.93% lower than BHI broth (USD $ 23.04/L). It was possible to design a “low-cost agro-industrial by-product-based culture media to produce L. lactis A12 and the two Priestia species under monoculture conditions.

The Utilisation and Feasibility Study of Solid Waste, Palm Kernel Cake, and Trichantera Gigantea (Ketum Ayam) as Animal Feed for Broiler

The Utilisation and Feasibility Study of Solid Waste, Palm Kernel Cake, and Trichantera Gigantea (Ketum Ayam) as Animal Feed for Broiler

Current status of Indonesia’s palm oil products and their competitiveness in the global market

Abstract Oil palm is recognised as contributing significantly to crucial economic growth in Indonesia. Still, it is often considered a severe threat to tropical forest ecosystems due to the large amount of forest conversion for oil palm cultivation. Also, oil palm business and marketing processes have many opportunities and challenges. In response, this research examines and reveals in depth the current state of Indonesia’s palm oil business and marketing in the global market. By interviewing, reviewing the literature, and conducting a stakeholder analysis, we found that Indonesia has high competition for global palm oil, with processed products such as Refined Palm Oil and Oleochemical Mix dominating the world market and high export value growth. However, the export value for crude oil, such as palm oil and palm kernel oil, in 2020 - 2021 is low due to government policies for downstream and industrialisation programs. The government, as policymakers, the oil palm funding agency (BPDPKS), and the oil palm companies are key players with high interest and influence in the sustainable development of the oil palm business. European Union and Press can be context setters with low interest but high influence on business and marketing processes in Indonesia.

Calcined biomass-bentonite composites as eco-friendly adsorbents for the treatment of toxic anionic and cationic dye wastewater

Adsorption is a suitable technique for decontamination of organic dye wastewaters. Herein, we comparatively investigated the adsorption performance of bentonite (BEN) and its modification with groundnut shell (BGS) and palm kernel shell (BPS) for methylene blue (MB) and congo red (CR) dyes removal from aqueous solution. BGS and BPS were prepared by calcination at 300 °C for 6 h and were characterized using BET, SEM, EDS and FTIR to determine their textural properties, morphologies, elemental compositions, and functional groups. The BET surface examination revealed that the surface area of BEN was enhanced from 78 m2/g to 195 m2/g and 141 m2/g after modification with groundnut shell (BGS) and palm kernel shell (BPS), respectively. The adsorption process in a batch system was subjected to comprehensive experimentation to investigate the effect of adsorbent dosage, contact time, temperature, initial concentration, and pH. The adsorption was fitted to adsorption isotherm and kinetic models and the results revealed that the adsorption process of BEN, BGS, and BPS towards MB and CR adsorption can be best described by Temkin, Freundlich and pseudo-second order kinetic models. The adsorption capacities (qmax) for uptake of MB by BEN, BGS and BPS are 10.61, 10.85 and 10.93 mg, while CR exhibited 8.83, 6.87 and 5.86 mg/g, respectively. The thermodynamics study revealed that the adsorption process was spontaneous, feasible, endothermic in nature. The adsorption process is governed by electrostatic attraction with the involvement of physical and chemical adsorption. This study suggests that biomass-modified bentonite is a sustainable, cost-effective, non-toxic, and greener approach for eliminating MB and CR from aqueous solution. Furthermore, the modification method does not only achieve substantial removal of MB and CR dyes, but also offers considerable energy savings and operational cost reductions in real-time based on water quality data. This study does present a novel, sustainable approach to improve natural water treatment efficiency and compliance.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF CURRENT BIOMASS UTILISATION BY PALM OIL MILLS IN PENINSULAR MALAYSIA

Oil palm biomass, which includes empty fruit bunches (EFB), mesocarp fibres (MF), palm kernel shells (PKS), and palm oil mill effluent (POME), are no longer seen as low-value residue, but as valuable economic resources that may contribute positively to national wealth. These oil palm biomasses can be converted into high value-added products, which can in turn generate additional revenue for the country. This study aims to identify the current biomass utilisation by palm oil mills in Peninsular Malaysia and examine the economic viability of biomass products generated by these mills across different categories. This study uses primary data obtained through a census of all 242 Malaysian Palm Oil Board-licensed palm oil mills in Peninsular Malaysia. The data were analysed using descriptive analysis and independent samples t-test. The study found that incineration is the most profitable approach for EFB, followed by selling EFB to other parties. However, due to environmental regulation and the lack of market for EFB, most of the resources (62.4%) were either returned to plantations or sent to landfills. In addition, 92.4% of MF generated were utilised for electricity generation through in-house boilers and this alternative has been proven to provide maximum profit to palm oil mills. The study also found that although selling PKS to other parties was proven to provide better profits to the palm oil mills, the PKS were mostly utilised for electricity generation through in-house boilers. Lastly, for the sludge from POME, there was no significant difference in the utilisation of the sludge, either if it was used for plantations or sold to other parties.

Production of biodiesel from palm kernel oil through base-catalyzed trans-esterification process

Growing concerns about environmental problems associated with fuels have engineered so much research into biofuels, such as biodiesel. However, continuous and large-scale production of biodiesel from edible oil could result in serious food security problems if cheap and viable alternatives are not made available. To solve this problem, oil was obtained from non-food/ underutilized seeds of palm kernel using Soxhlet apparatus. Physicochemical properties and fatty acids composition of these oils were determined using standard analytical and instrumental methods. Biodiesel was processed from these oils via sequential base (KOH) homogeneous catalysis. Fuel properties of biodiesel from the oil were determined using standard methods and the results obtained were compared with standards. Oil yields were found to be 37.6% for palm kernel seed respectively. Physicochemical properties of palm kernel oil respectively are: saponification value:(115.00)mg KOH/g, acid value(4.488)mgKOH/g, free fatty acid value (2.244)mg/KOH/viscosity:(29)mm2/s, moisture content: (0.46)%, peroxide value:(3.12)meqkg-1,refractive index:(1.455), specific gravity (0.899)g/cm. Fuel properties of biodiesel from palm kernel seed oil respectively are: Kinematic viscosity at 40oc: (nil) mm2/s, smoke point (100oc), flash point(90oc),fire point:(150oc),pour point(nil) and cloud point:(nil).The physicochemical properties of the biodiesel produced showed that the flash point, viscosity, density, ash content, percentage carbon content, specific gravity and the acid value fell within American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) specifications for biodiesel. Therefore, the biodiesel produced from the oil significantly met standard quality requirements.

Mechanical, Chemical and Physical Characteristics of Palm Kernel Shell and Polystyrene Mixture Pellets

Mechanical, Chemical and Physical Characteristics of Palm Kernel Shell and Polystyrene Mixture Pellets

Properties of ceramic membranes obtained from kaolinitic clay mixed with palm and mango wastes from Cameroon: Application to wastewater treatment from breweries

AbstractThis work focuses on the development of new ceramic membranes based on mixtures of low‐cost and locally available raw materials such as kaolinitic clay and additives such as palm kernel shells and mango seed shells, which are used as pore‐forming agents to increase pore size, and on their efficiencies in rejecting organic and inorganic pollutants from brewery wastewater. The physical and chemical properties of raw materials were characterized via X‐ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, differential thermal analysis/thermogravimetry, energy dispersive X‐ray, and Fourier transform infrared spectrophotometry. Sintering was performed at 1100°C, and the permeability and mechanical properties of circular membranes were determined. The membrane filtration operation was used to assess the physicochemical parameters of the wastewater. The membrane composed of 85% kaolinite and 15% mango seed shells showed the best performance. The effective treatment of the breweries wastewater reduced the level of contamination by organic pollutants in the discharge water, with a reduction in concentration from 700 to 14 mg O2 L‒1 of chemical oxygen demand and 250 to 06 mg O2 L‒1 of biological oxygen demand for 5 days, representing elimination rates of 98% and 97.6%, respectively. The treated water is alkaline, with a reduction in pH from 10.79 to 7.77. Suspended matter, turbidity, and electrical conductivity had removal rates of 88%, 90.6%, and 99.8%, respectively. A significant reduction in the salinity of this wastewater contributed to sodium and chloride ion rejection rates of 93% and 79%, respectively, which is an important result for good reuse of the treated water in agriculture and domestic work.

Development of biocomposites using cardanol oil bio-toughener, palm kernel fiber and chitosan derived from discarded biomass wastes: a characterization study with aging conditions

Development of biocomposites using cardanol oil bio-toughener, palm kernel fiber and chitosan derived from discarded biomass wastes: a characterization study with aging conditions