Paleolithic Times Research Articles

The Magdalenian settlement of the Cantabrian region (Northern Spain): The view from El Miron Cave

The Magdalenian of Cantabrian Spain spans the period of Oldest Dryas and the Late Glacial Interstadial, with an Epimagdalenian extension, the Azilian, dating to Younger Dryas, for a full temporal range between ca. 17–9 ka (20–11 cal ka). It is currently divided into Initial (17–16 ka = 20.3–19.3 cal ka), Lower (16–14.5 ka = 19.3–18 cal ka), Middle (14.5–13.2 ka = 17.7–16.4 cal ka) and Upper (13.2–12 ka = 16.4–14 cal ka) phases, a possible Final Magdalenian/Transitional (12–11.5 ka = 14–13.4) period, and finally the Epimagdalenian Azilian per se dating to ca. 11.6–9 ka (13.4–10.2 cal ka). Although the Initial and Middle phases are still poorly known (and difficult to specify in the absence of diagnostic artifacts and/or precise radiocarbon dates), it is clear that the densities of Lower Magdalenian, Upper/Final Magdalenian and Azilian sites are the highest of any of the Paleolithic time periods in the geographically circumscribed Cantabrian region, a narrow strip of land between the Bay of Biscay and the Cantabrian Cordillera. Human populations may have been organized into small band territories corresponding to the short valleys in this region of extremely high relief, whose Late Glacial coastline (unlike that of neighboring Aquitaine) was only slightly further north its present position and whose chief game species (red deer and ibex–as opposed to reindeer, horse and saiga) were characterized by low mobility. The Magdalenian is known for a wealth of cave and portable art. In the Initial and Lower Magdalenian (as in the preceding Solutrean), Cantabrian societies seem to have been characterized by a high degree of “localism”, while in the Middle and Upper Magdalenian contacts with Pyrenean France and other parts of the expanding Magdalenian world increased significantly, as expressed in art styles and items of exchange. This region had been a major refugium for human groups during the Last Glacial Maximum/Solutrean period and the development of Magdalenian technologies and other cultural traditions seems to have been a largely in situ process in northern Atlantic Spain, which is adjacent to, but geographically and ecologically different from both SW France and Mediterranean Spain. However, increasingly, as environmental conditions ameliorated, there was an intensification of social contacts between Vasco–Cantabria and the rest of the ever-larger inhabited parts of Western Europe. El Mirón Cave, in the Cordillera on the border between the provinces of Cantabria and Vizcaya, has yielded one of the most complete and thoroughly dated sequences of Magdalenian (and Azilian) levels in the entire region. It is characterized by major, intensive, repetitive, long-term, multi-functional occupations (Initial, Lower and Middle Magdalenian)–with independently dated rock art and rich assemblages of lithic and osseous artifacts, portable art objects, personal adornments, terrestrial and anadromous faunal remains, structural features, and a highly ritualized secondary human burial. However, there were also short, ephemeral, limited-function, discontinuous occupations (Upper/Final Magdalenian, Azilian), as the role of the cave and the organization of human activities within the territory of the Asón River basin both changed during the closing millennia of the Pleistocene.

The Holocene evolution of the Kalamas delta (northwestern Greece) derived from geophysical and sedimentological survey

This article aims to present the Holocene dynamics that are responsible for the creation and the evolution of the delta of the Kalamas River (65 km2, the smallest delta of Epirus, northwestern Greece). Archaeological remains prove a continuous occupation since the Upper Paleolithic times (site of Pyrgos Raghiou). In connection with the two archaeological sites of Mastilitsa (Bronze Age) and Pirgos Raghiou (continuous occupation since the Upper Paleolithic) and the published archaeological data, this paper presents the first results concerning the Holocene evolution of the delta. The methodology adopted crosses both geophysical data (seven profiles of electrical resistivity along three transects) and sedimentological studies, obtained through fourteen cores. The results are presented in two complementary parts: the first one emphasises the existence of several Holocene buried palaeochannels near the archaeological sites. The second presents the first description of the successive environments since 7440 BP. These results, associated with a series of three 14C datings, can open up interesting prospects for research on the environmental changes that occurred at the beginning of the Holocene.

High levels of Paleolithic Y-chromosome lineages characterize Serbia

Whether present-day European genetic variation and its distribution patterns can be attributed primarily to the initial peopling of Europe by anatomically modern humans during the Paleolithic, or to latter Near Eastern Neolithic input is still the subject of debate. Southeastern Europe has been a crossroads for several cultures since Paleolithic times and the Balkans, specifically, would have been part of the route used by Neolithic farmers to enter Europe. Given its geographic location in the heart of the Balkan Peninsula at the intersection of Central and Southeastern Europe, Serbia represents a key geographical location that may provide insight to elucidate the interactions between indigenous Paleolithic people and agricultural colonists from the Fertile Crescent. In this study, we examine, for the first time, the Y-chromosome constitution of the general Serbian population. A total of 103 individuals were sampled and their DNA analyzed for 104 Y-chromosome bi-allelic markers and 17 associated STR loci. Our results indicate that approximately 58% of Serbian Y-chromosomes (I1-M253, I2a-P37.2 and R1a1a-M198) belong to lineages believed to be pre-Neolithic. On the other hand, the signature of putative Near Eastern Neolithic lineages, including E1b1b1a1-M78, G2a-P15, J1-M267, J2-M172 and R1b1a2-M269 accounts for 39% of the Y-chromosome. Haplogroup frequency distributions in Western and Eastern Europe reveal a spotted landscape of paleolithic Y chromosomes, undermining continental-wide generalizations. Furthermore, an examination of the distribution of Y-chromosome filiations in Europe indicates extreme levels of Paleolithic lineages in a region encompassing Serbia, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia, possibly the result of Neolithic migrations encroaching on Paleolithic populations against the Adriatic Sea.

Phallic Decoration in Paleolithic Art: Genital Scarification, Piercing and Tattoos

The primitive anthropological meaning of genital ornamentation is not clearly defined and the origin of penile intervention for decorative purposes is lost in time. Corporeal decoration was practiced in the Upper Paleolithic period. We discuss the existing evidence on the practice of phallic piercing, scarring and tattooing in prehistory. We studied the archaeological and artistic evidence regarding explicit genital male representations in portable art made in Europe approximately 38,000 to 11,000 years ago with special emphasis on decorations suggesting genital ornamentation. Archaeological evidence that has survived to our day includes 42 phallic pieces, of which 30 (71.4%) show intentional marks to a different extent with a probable decorative purpose. Of these ornamental elements 18 (60%) were recovered from the upper Magdalenian period (11,000 to 12,700 years ago) in France and Spain, and 23 (76.7%) belong to the category of perforated batons. Decorations show lines (70% of objects), plaques (26.7%), dots/holes (23.3%) or even human/animal forms (13.3%). These designs most probably represent skin scarification, cutting, piercing and tattooing. Notably there are some technical similarities between the motifs represented and some designs present in symbolic cave wall art. This evidence may show the anthropological origin of current male genital piercing and tattooing. European Paleolithic art shows decoration explicitly represented in a high proportion of portable art objects with a phallic form that have survived to our day. Decorative rituals of male genital tattooing, piercing and scarification may have been practiced during Paleolithic times.

Genetic structure of Tunisian ethnic groups revealed by paternal lineages

Tunisia has experienced a variety of human migrations that have modeled the myriad cultural groups inhabiting the area. Both Arabic and Berber-speaking populations live in Tunisia. Berbers are commonly considered as in situ descendants of peoples who settled roughly in Palaeolithic times, and posterior demographic events such as the arrival of the Neolithic, the Arab migrations, and the expulsion of the "Moors" from Spain, had a strong cultural influence. Nonetheless, the genetic structure and the population relationships of the ethnic groups living in Tunisia have been poorly assessed. In order to gain insight into the paternal genetic landscape and population structure, more than 40 Y-chromosome single nucleotide polymorphisms and 17 short tandem repeats were analyzed in five Tunisian ethnic groups (three Berber-speaking isolates, one Andalusian, and one Cosmopolitan Arab). The most common lineage was the North African haplogroup E-M81 (71%), being fixed in two Berber samples (Chenini-Douiret and Jradou), suggesting isolation and genetic drift. Differential levels of paternal gene flow from the Near East were detected in the Tunisian samples (J-M267 lineage over 30%); however, no major sub-Saharan African or European influence was found. This result contrasts with the high amount of sub-Saharan and Eurasian maternal lineages previously described in Tunisia. Overall, our results reveal a certain genetic inter-population diversity, especially among Berber groups, and sexual asymmetry, paternal lineages being mostly of autochthonous origin. In addition, Andalusians, who are supposed to be migrants from southern Spain, do not exhibit any substantial contribution of European lineages, suggesting a North African origin for this ethnic group.

Do you like paleolithic op‐art?

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to consider the history of certain modular elements: Truchet tiles, Op‐tiles, Kufic tiles, and key‐patterns, which occur as ornamental archetypes from Paleolithic times until the present. The appearance of the same ornamental archetypes at the same level of the development in different cultures, distant in space and time can be described from the cybernetics point of view as a specific kind of self‐referential systems or cellular automata present in the intellectual and cultural development of mankind. The aim of this research is to show a continuity of the development of ornamental structures based on modular elements used as ornamental archetypes.Design/methodology/approachResearch of the material from archaeological findings, history of art, painting, architecture, and applied arts.FindingsExistence of universal geometrical construction principles based on modularity.Practical implicationsCreation of new patterns or designs (e.g. TeX‐fonts, tiles, etc.) based on modularity.Originality/valueThe paper presents a new explanation of constructions of labyrinths and different Islamic patterns.

World Art on Swimming

This article aims to identify swimming-related artwork from Paleolithic times up to the present day and to assess whether possible use of art could act as aid to teaching. An art search obtained 49 paintings and sculptures. Results confirmed that artists have bestowed a wealth of related artwork on the world of aquatics. Depictions of people swimming competitively or recreationally, diving, bathing, working and fighting were found in Egypt, Greece, Persia, Italy, Spain, the USA, Japan and China. Depending on the particular society, the ability to swim indicated either a high or low socio-economic status. In some depictions, knowledge of swimming was accompanied by the ability to dive from high cliffs or into deep water, to hold one’s breath underwater, and to show physical endurance. A variety of swimming strokes were depicted throughout history in art. Various types of swimwear, or nude swimming, were evident in different societies.

Who brought in the rabbits? Taphonomical analysis of Mousterian and Solutrean leporid accumulations from Gruta do Caldeirão (Tomar, Portugal)

In the Iberian Peninsula, leporids, and specifically rabbits, play a key role in the understanding of hunter-gatherer economies. They appear to have been especially important in the Tardiglacial, when large numbers of small prey animals and of the European rabbit ( Oryctolagus cuniculus) in particular, are a ubiquitous feature of faunal assemblages from archaeological sites. Since a large number of non-human predators can also contribute to the formation of such assemblages, the ability to discriminate between bones accumulated by humans and by other kinds of predators is a key prerequisite to their interpretation. On the basis of systematic actualistic studies carried out on modern leporid remains produced by mammalian terrestrial carnivores, nocturnal and diurnal raptors, and humans, we identified diagnostic taphonomic indicators of the different predators. In this paper, the patterns observed on the modern material are applied to the taphonomical analysis of two archaeological samples of rabbit and hare remains from Mousterian and Solutrean layers of Gruta do Caldeirão, a cave site located in Central Portugal. Our results suggest that Eagle Owl ( Bubo bubo) were mainly responsible for the Mousterian accumulations, whilst the Solutrean ones were most likely the result of human activity. These data support the notion that, in Iberia, significant reliance on rabbits does not become a feature of subsistence strategies until later Upper Palaeolithic times.

Middle Pleistocene bird consumption at Level XI of Bolomor Cave (Valencia, Spain)

The consumption of small prey dates back to the Plio-Pleistocene chronologies in some African sites. However, the systematic acquisition and consumption of small prey in the pre-Upper Palaeolithic times is still a highly debated topic in Europe. Although the utilization of leporids has been recorded in several pre-Late Pleistocene European sites, the evidence of bird consumption is not as common for these periods. Nevertheless, Level XI (MIS 6) of Bolomor Cave has clear diagnostic elements to document the acquisition and use of birds ( Aythya sp.) for food in the form of: (1) cutmarks on bones of both the front and hind limb; (2) presence of burning patterns on the extremities of the bones (areas of the skeleton with less meat); and (3) human toothmarks on limb bones. The capture of birds is classified as quick-flying game in the archaeological sites. The acquiring of fast-running (mostly lagomorphs) and quick-flying small prey requires a sophisticated technology and involves obtaining and processing ways different from those used for large- and medium-sized animals. From this perspective, the aim of this paper is to examine possible patterns in the processing sequence of birds from Level XI of Bolomor Cave and to improve the data on their butchery and human consumption in the Middle Pleistocene of Iberian Peninsula.

Genetic Admixture History of Eastern Indonesia as Revealed by Y-Chromosome and Mitochondrial DNA Analysis

Eastern Indonesia possesses more linguistic diversity than any other region in Southeast Asia, with both Austronesian (AN) languages that are of East Asian origin, as well as non-Austronesian (NAN) languages of likely Melanesian origin. Here, we investigated the genetic history of human populations from seven eastern Indonesian islands, including AN and NAN speakers, as well as the relationship between languages and genes, by means of nonrecombining Y-chromosomal (NRY) and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) analysis. We found that the eastern Indonesian gene pool consists of East Asian as well as Melanesian components, as might be expected based on linguistic evidence, but also harbors putative indigenous eastern Indonesian signatures that perhaps reflect the initial occupation of the Wallacea by aboriginal hunter-gatherers already in Palaeolithic times. Furthermore, both NRY and mtDNA data showed a complete lack of correlation between linguistic and genetic relationships, most likely reflecting genetic admixture and/or language shift. In addition, we noted a small fraction of the NRY and mtDNA data shared between eastern Indonesians and Australian Aborigines likely reflecting an ancient link between Asia and Australia. Our data thus provide insights into the complex genetic ancestry history of eastern Indonesian islanders characterized by several admixture episodes and demonstrate a clear example of the lack of the often-assumed correlation between the genes and languages of human populations.

Evolution of M1 crown size and cusp proportions in the genus Homo

Previous research into tooth crown dimensions and cusp proportions has proved to be a useful way to identify taxonomic differences in Pliocene and Pleistocene fossil hominins. The present study has identified changes in both M(1) crown size and cusp proportions within the genus Homo, with M(1) overall crown size reduction apparently occurring in two main stages. The first stage (a reduction of ca. 17%) is associated with the emergence of Homo ergaster and Homo erectus sensu stricto. The second stage (a reduction of ca. 10%) occurs in Homo sapiens, but the reduced modern human M(1) tooth crown size was only attained in Upper Paleolithic times. The absolute sizes of the individual cusps are highly positively correlated with overall crown size and dental reduction produces a reduction in the absolute size of each of the cusps. Most of the individual cusps scale isometrically with crown size, but the paracone shows a negative allometric relationship, indicating that the reduction in paracone size is less than in the other M(1) cusps. Thus, the phylogenetically oldest cusp in the upper molars also seems to be the most stable cusp (at least in the M(1)). The most striking change in M(1) cusp proportions is a change in the relative size of the areas of the paracone and metacone. The combination of a small relative paracone and a large relative metacone generally characterizes specimens attributed to early Homo, and the presence of this character state in Australopithecus and Paranthropus suggests it may represent the primitive condition for the later part of the hominin clade. In contrast, nearly all later Homo taxa, with the exception of Homo antecessor, show the opposite condition (i.e. a relatively large paracone and a relatively small metacone). This change in the relationship between the relative sizes of the paracone and metacone is related to an isometric reduction of the absolute size of the metacone. This metacone reduction occurs in the context of relative stability in the paracone as crown size decreases. Among later Homo taxa, both Homo heidelbergensis and Homo neanderthalensis show a further reduction of the metacone and an enlargement of the hypocone. Fossil and contemporary H. sapiens samples show a trend toward increasing the relative size of the protocone and decreasing the relative size of the hypocone. In Europe, modern human M(1) cusp proportions are essentially reached during the Upper Paleolithic. Although some variation was documented among the fossil taxa, we suggest that the relative size of the M(1) paracone and metacone areas may be useful for differentiating the earliest members of our genus from subsequent Homo species.

SOME EARLY ASTRONOMICAL SITES IN THE KASHMIR REGION

We discuss a number of early rock art sites in the Kashmir Valley in northern India and neighbouring Pakistan, and suggest that some of these contain depictions of astronomical objects or events. The sites are in the Srinagar and Sopore regions and in or near the Ladakh region, and date to Neolithic or Upper Paleolithic times. Our studies suggest that during this period some of the ancient astronomers recorded supernovae, meteorite impacts, the Sun, the Moon and the seasons in their rock art.

Throwing in the Middle and Upper Paleolithic: inferences from an analysis of humeral retroversion

When in evolutionary history did long-range projectile weapons become an important component of hunting toolkits? The archeological evidence for the development of projectile weaponry is complex and generally indirect, and has led to different conclusions about the origin and spread of this technology. Lithic evidence from the Middle Stone Age (MSA) has led some researchers to suggest that true long- range projectile weaponry developed in Africa perhaps as early as 80,000 years ago, and was part of the subsistence toolkit carried by modern humans who expanded out of Africa after 50,000 years ago. Alternatively, temporal patterns in the morphology of pointed lithics has led others to posit an independent, convergent origin of projectile weaponry in Africa, the Near East, and Europe during the interval between 50,000–40,000 years ago. By either scenario, projectile weapons would not have been a component of the hunting arsenal of Neandertals, but may have been in use by European early modern humans and thus, projectile technology may have entered into the competitive dynamics that existed between these two groups. The origins of projectile weapons can be addressed, in part, through analyses of the skeletal remains of the prehistoric humans who made and used them. Habitual behavior patterns—including those related to the production and use of technology—can be imprinted on the skeleton through both genetic and epigenetic pathways. Recent studies in the field of sports medicine indicate that individuals who engage in habitual throwing have increased humeral retroversion angles in their throwing arms and a greater degree of bilateral asymmetry in retroversion angles than do non-throwers. This contribution investigates humeral torsion through analysis of the retroversion angle in samples of Eurasian Neandertals, European early modern humans of the middle and late Upper Paleolithic, and comparative samples of recent humans. This analysis was conducted under the assumption that if throwing-based projectile weaponry was used by early modern Europeans but not Neandertals, Upper Paleolithic samples should be similar to recent human groups engaged in habitual throwing in the degree of humeral retroversion in the dominant limb and in bilateral asymmetry in this feature. Neandertals on the other hand, would not be expected to show marked asymmetry in humeral retroversion. Consistent with other studies, Neandertals exhibit increased retroversion angles (decreased humeral torsion or a more posteriorly oriented humeral head) relative to most modern human samples, although this appears more likely related to body form and overall activity levels than to habitual throwing. Although Neandertals with bilaterally preserved humeri sufficient for measurement are rare (consisting of only two males and one female), levels of bilateral asymmetry in humeral retroversion are low, suggesting a lack of regular throwing. While patterning across fossil and comparative samples in levels of humeral retroversion was not clear cut, males of both the middle and late Upper Paleolithic demonstrate a high level of bilateral asymmetry, comparable to or in excess of that seen in samples of throwing athletes. This may indicate habitual use of throwing-based projectile weaponry by middle Upper Paleolithic times. Small sample sizes and relatively great variance in the fossil samples makes these results, however, suggestive rather than conclusive.

Human socio-economic adaptation to environment in Late Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic Eastern Europe

The choice of adaptation ways depended considerably on social capabilities of prehistoric societies at different stage of anthropogenesis and material culture development. Studies performed on the East European Plain revealed essential features of systems of human adaptations at the Middle Paleolithic, Upper Paleolithic and later stages. The migratory type of adaptation was dominant at the Middle Paleolithic and at the beginning of Upper Paleolithic time when early humans were completely dependent on fluctuations of climate and environments. Since the second half of Upper Paleolithic the adaptability of humans increased with development and active use of a number of protective measures; under those conditions, the autochthonous type of adaptation became prevalent that ensured human survival even in extreme conditions. In later epochs a diffusion type made itself felt, which contributed to a relatively fast penetration of productive economy into various landscape systems.

The Archaeology of Kent to AD 800

Kent's proximity to the European mainland has meant that it has always had a special relationship with its continental neighbours. At times, this has been a positive force, with Kent a conduit for trade and new ideas, but on other occasions the white cliffs of Dover have symbolised defiance, with Kent being in the front line in the defence of England. The result has been an extremely rich archaeological heritage from Palaeolithic times onwards. The opening up of the Channel Tunnel and the construction of the associated high-speed railway line linking England and France, together with major development activity associated with an agenda for regeneration and economic growth, has resulted in unprecedented archaeological activity which has revolutionised our understanding of Kent's earlier past. The contributors to this volume, all of whom have specialist research interests in Kent, have combined established wisdom with the fresh information from recent work to create a new and exciting story. The contributors include: Timothy Champion, Martin Millett, Martin Welch and Francis Wenban-Smith.

THE LOUVRE LABORATORY

WANDERING AROUND the impressive grounds of Paris’ Louvre Museum, one finds it hard to believe that three floors beneath the grandiose art and architecture is an operational 3-MeV particle accelerator. While thousands of visitors wander through the museum’s myriad wings every day, trying to view as many of the Louvre’s 35,000 works as possible, some 60 scientists spend their days analyzing these same artifacts in subterranean laboratories. “We work on about 500 cultural artifacts a year, from Paleolithic times all the way to the 20th century,” says Anne Bouquillon, who heads the Stone, Ceramic & Metal Research Division of the Center for Research & Restoration of the Museums of France (C2RMF). Scientists enter C2RMF through one of the Louvre Museum’s inconspicuous side entrances bordering the Seine River. To reach the underground research center, they must pass through a limestone archway, then slip down a discreet stone staircase and along a short passageway before entering ...

Anthropology and Genetics of the Caucasus Peoples and the Problem of the Origin of the Caucasoids

The electrophoretical polymorphisms of some blood proteins were studied in the Talysh population of Pirasora situated in South-East Azerbaidjan. We calculated the gene frequencies of these polymorphisms and determined the genetic distances between the Talyshes and some Iranian populations of North, Central and South Iran, Afghans, and three populations of Azerbaijan. The Talyshes are very close to Iranians of Shiraz, whereas they are distant from the Azerbaijanians. Anthropological investigations showed that the Caucasoids and Mongoloids lived in the Aragvi Basin since the Eneolithic period. This was stated by Alexeev (1974), who emphasized the mixture of the Caucasus populations from ancient times on. We calculated the genetic distances between the Caucasus populations and numerous populations of other geographic regions, considering 28 alleles of 12 loci of blood group, serum protein and red cell enzyme polymorphisms and constructed the dendrogram of these populations. The position of the Caucasus populations in the dendrogram corresponds on principle to the earlier anthropological observations. The clustering of the Caucasoid populations corresponds completely with anthropological and historical data, and supports our earlier hypothesis (Nazarova 1999) concerning the differentiation of Caucasoids, Northern Mongoloids and Amerinds from the populations, which inhabitated Asia in palaeolithic times.

Genetic traces of east‐to‐west human expansion waves in Eurasia

In this study, we describe the landscape of human demographic expansions in Eurasia using a large continental Y chromosome and mitochondrial DNA dataset. Variation at these two uniparentally-inherited genetic systems retraces expansions that occurred in the past 60 ky, and shows a clear decrease of expansion ages from east to west Eurasia. To investigate the demographic events at the origin of this westward decrease of expansion ages, the estimated divergence ages between Eurasian populations are compared with the estimated expansion ages within each population. Both markers suggest that the demographic expansion diffused from east to west in Eurasia in a demic way, i.e., through migrations of individuals (and not just through diffusion of new technologies), highlighting the prominent role of eastern regions within Eurasia during Palaeolithic times.

Does Helicobacter pylori protect against asthma and allergy?

The microbes that persistently colonise their vertebrate hosts are not accidental.1 Although highly numerous and diverse, there is specificity by site and substantial conservation between individuals. The genus Helicobacter includes...

The art of seeing and painting

The human urge to represent the three-dimensional world using two-dimensional pictorial representations dates back at least to Paleolithic times. Artists from ancient to modern times have struggled to understand how a few contours or color patches on a flat surface can induce mental representations of a three-dimensional scene. This article summarizes some of the recent breakthroughs in scientifically understanding how the brain sees that shed light on these struggles. These breakthroughs illustrate how various artists have intuitively understood paradoxical properties about how the brain sees, and have used that understanding to create great art. These paradoxical properties arise from how the brain forms the units of conscious visual perception; namely, representations of three-dimensional boundaries and surfaces. Boundaries and surfaces are computed in parallel cortical processing streams that obey computationally complementary properties. These streams interact at multiple levels to overcome their complementary weaknesses and to transform their complementary properties into consistent percepts. The article describes how properties of complementary consistency have guided the creation of many great works of art.