Odor Pairs Research Articles

Olfactory discrimination ability of South African fur seals (Arctocephalus pusillus) for enantiomers

Using a food-rewarded two-choice instrumental conditioning paradigm we assessed the ability of South African fur seals, Arctocephalus pusillus, to discriminate between 12 enantiomeric odor pairs. The results demonstrate that the fur seals as a group were able to discriminate between the optical isomers of carvone, dihydrocarvone, dihydrocarveol, menthol, limonene oxide, α-pinene, fenchone (all p<0.01), and β-citronellol (p<0.05), whereas they failed to distinguish between the (+)- and (-)-forms of limonene, isopulegol, rose oxide, and camphor (all p>0.05). An analysis of odor structure-activity relationships suggests that a combination of molecular structural properties rather than a single molecular feature may be responsible for the discriminability of enantiomeric odor pairs. A comparison between the discrimination performance of the fur seals and that of other species tested previously on the same set of enantiomers (or subsets thereof) suggests that the olfactory discrimination capabilities of this marine mammal are surprisingly well developed and not generally inferior to that of terrestrial mammals such as human subjects and non-human primates. Further, comparisons suggest that neither the relative nor the absolute size of the olfactory bulbs appear to be reliable predictors of between-species differences in olfactory discrimination capabilities. Taken together, the results of the present study support the notion that the sense of smell may play an important and hitherto underestimated role in regulating the behavior of fur seals.

Isoflurane impairs odour discrimination learning in rats: differential effects on short- and long-term memory

Anaesthetics suppress the formation of lasting memories at concentrations that do not suppress perception, but it is unclear which elements of the complex cascade leading from a conscious experience to a lasting memory trace are disrupted. Experiments in conscious humans suggest that subhypnotic concentrations of anaesthetics impair consolidation or maintenance rather than acquisition of a representation (long-term more than short-term memory). We sought to test whether these agents similarly impair learning in rats. We used operant conditioning in rats to examine the effect of isoflurane on acquisition compared with long-term (24 h) memory of non-aversive olfactory memories using two different odour discrimination tasks. Rats learned the 'valences' of odour pairs presented either separately (task A) or simultaneously (task B), under control conditions and under isoflurane inhalation. In a separate set of experiments, we tested the ability of the animals to recall a learning set that had been acquired 24 h previously. Under 0.4% isoflurane inhalation, the average number of trials required to reach criterion performance (18 correct responses in 20 successive trials) increased from 21.9 to 43.5 (P<0.05) and 24.2 to 54.4 (P<0.05) for tasks A and B, respectively. Under 0.3% isoflurane inhalation, only task B was impaired (from 24.2 to 31.5 trials, P<0.05). Recall at 24 h was dose-dependently impaired or prevented by isoflurane for both tasks. Isoflurane interfered with long-term memory of odour valence without preventing its acquisition. This paradigm may serve as a non-aversive animal model of conscious amnesia.

Same–Different Reaction Times to Odors: Some Unexpected Findings

Two experiments were carried out using olfactometers that delivered two stimuli with an interval of, respectively, 0.2 s (experiment 1) and 4.0 s (experiment 2) in a same–different paradigm. In experiment 1 (four men, age 38.5 ± 15.2 and six women, age 25.8 ± 1.2), four odors and in experiment 2 (nine men, age 23.4 ± 2.6 and ten women, age 22.7 ± 1.9), another eight odors were used in all pairs and pair-member orders. Subjects received each combination twice and responded as soon as possible after arrival of the second stimulus. Pair member similarity and odor pleasantness were measured in experiment 1 and odor complexity, familiarity, pleasantness, and self-reported odor imagining ability (high vs. low) in experiment 2. Results showed three independent effects: (1) “Same” responses took longer than “different” responses. (2) High imagers reacted faster than low imagers. (3) Reversing pair member order led to non-reciprocal similarity and reaction times. In different odor pairs, similarity and reaction time (R t) correlated strongly and prime-familiarity and R t correlated negatively. Edibility had an effect via prime-familiarity. Pleasantness had an effect only when a less pleasant odor followed a more pleasant one. All these latter effects were unrelated to the effects of participants’ imaging ability.

PKA increases in the olfactory bulb act as unconditioned stimuli and provide evidence for parallel memory systems: Pairing odor with increased PKA creates intermediate- and long-term, but not short-term, memories

Neonatal odor-preference memory in rat pups is a well-defined associative mammalian memory model dependent on cAMP. Previous work from this laboratory demonstrates three phases of neonatal odor-preference memory: short-term (translation-independent), intermediate-term (translation-dependent), and long-term (transcription- and translation-dependent). Here, we use neonatal odor-preference learning to explore the role of olfactory bulb PKA in these three phases of mammalian memory. PKA activity increased normally in learning animals 10 min after a single training trial. Inhibition of PKA by Rp-cAMPs blocked intermediate-term and long-term memory, with no effect on short-term memory. PKA inhibition also prevented learning-associated CREB phosphorylation, a transcription factor implicated in long-term memory. When long-term memory was rescued through increased β-adrenoceptor activation, CREB phosphorylation was restored. Intermediate-term and long-term, but not short-term odor-preference memories were generated by pairing odor with direct PKA activation using intrabulbar Sp-cAMPs, which bypasses β-adrenoceptor activation. Higher levels of Sp-cAMPs enhanced memory by extending normal 24-h retention to 48-72 h. These results suggest that increased bulbar PKA is necessary and sufficient for the induction of intermediate-term and long-term odor-preference memory, and suggest that PKA activation levels also modulate memory duration. However, short-term memory appears to use molecular mechanisms other than the PKA/CREB pathway. These mechanisms, which are also recruited by β-adrenoceptor activation, must operate in parallel with PKA activation.

Concordance in mate choice in female mound-building mice

Females must evaluate male quality to perform mate choice. Since females generally base their selection on different male features, individual females may differ in their choice. In this study, we show that concordance between females in mate choice decisions may arise without any experimental maximization of a particular attractive trait. Choice tests were performed in mound-building mice, Mus spicilegus, a monogamous species. Body odours of two male donors were presented to 12 female subjects individually. To determine female choice, the same pair of males was presented three times to a female. Four different pairs of male body odours were used. Male donors, not related to females, were selected at random in our polymorphic breeding stock. Using this two-way choice design, female mice displayed a clear choice and had a similar preference for particular males.

The role of adult hippocampal neurogenesis in reducing interference.

Adult neurogenesis in the hippocampal dentate gyrus plays an important role in learning and memory. However, the precise contribution of the new neurons to hippocampal function remains controversial. Emerging evidence suggests that neurogenesis is important for pattern separation and for mitigating interference when similar items must be learned at different times. In the present study, we directly test this prediction using a recently developed olfactory memory task that has those specific features. In this task, rats learn two highly interfering lists of odor pairs, one after the other, in either the same or in different contexts. Consistent with our hypothesis, focal cranial irradiation, resulting in selective reduction of neurogenesis within the dentate gyrus, significantly impaired the ability to overcome interference during learning of the second list. The ability to learn a single odor list was unimpaired. We also show that irradiation had no effect on learning in a hippocampal-dependent spatial alternation task. Although both tasks involved learning interfering responses, the time course for learning the interfering items differed. Learning the interfering odor lists took place sequentially, over the course of several sessions, whereas learning the interfering spatial locations took place concurrently, within each session. Thus, the gradual addition of new neurons may have provided a pattern separation mechanism for the olfactory task but not for the maze task. These findings demonstrate a role for neurogenesis in resolving interference and they are consistent with models suggesting a critical role for neurogenesis in pattern separation.

A Combined Perceptual, Physico-Chemical, and Imaging Approach to ‘Odour-Distances’ Suggests a Categorizing Function of the Drosophila Antennal Lobe

How do physico-chemical stimulus features, perception, and physiology relate? Given the multi-layered and parallel architecture of brains, the question specifically is where physiological activity patterns correspond to stimulus features and/or perception. Perceived distances between six odour pairs are defined behaviourally from four independent odour recognition tasks. We find that, in register with the physico-chemical distances of these odours, perceived distances for 3-octanol and n-amylacetate are consistently smallest in all four tasks, while the other five odour pairs are about equally distinct. Optical imaging in the antennal lobe, using a calcium sensor transgenically expressed in only first-order sensory or only second-order olfactory projection neurons, reveals that 3-octanol and n-amylacetate are distinctly represented in sensory neurons, but appear merged in projection neurons. These results may suggest that within-antennal lobe processing funnels sensory signals into behaviourally meaningful categories, in register with the physico-chemical relatedness of the odours.

Recognition memory for social and non-social odors: Differential effects of neurotoxic lesions to the hippocampus and perirhinal cortex

The contributions of the hippocampus (HC) and perirhinal cortex (PER) to recognition memory are currently topics of debate in neuroscience. Here we used a rapidly-learned (seconds) spontaneous novel odor recognition paradigm to assess the effects of pre-training N-methyl-D-aspartate lesions to the HC or PER on odor recognition memory. We tested memory for both social and non-social odor stimuli. Social odors were acquired from conspecifics, while non-social odors were household spices. Conspecific odor stimuli are ethologically-relevant and have a high degree of overlapping features compared to non-social household spices. Various retention intervals (5min, 20min, 1h, 24h, or 48h) were used between study and test phases, each with a unique odor pair, to assess changes in novelty preference over time. Consistent with findings in other paradigms, modalities, and species, we found that HC lesions yielded no significant recognition memory deficits. In contrast, PER lesions caused significant deficits for social odor recognition memory at long retention intervals, demonstrating a critical role for PER in long-term memory for social odors. PER lesions had no effect on memory for non-social odors. The results are consistent with a general role for PER in long-term recognition memory for stimuli that have a high degree of overlapping features, which must be distinguished by conjunctive representations.

Modeling Peripheral Olfactory Coding in Drosophila Larvae

The Drosophila larva possesses just 21 unique and identifiable pairs of olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs), enabling investigation of the contribution of individual OSN classes to the peripheral olfactory code. We combined electrophysiological and computational modeling to explore the nature of the peripheral olfactory code in situ. We recorded firing responses of 19/21 OSNs to a panel of 19 odors. This was achieved by creating larvae expressing just one functioning class of odorant receptor, and hence OSN. Odor response profiles of each OSN class were highly specific and unique. However many OSN-odor pairs yielded variable responses, some of which were statistically indistinguishable from background activity. We used these electrophysiological data, incorporating both responses and spontaneous firing activity, to develop a Bayesian decoding model of olfactory processing. The model was able to accurately predict odor identity from raw OSN responses; prediction accuracy ranged from 12%–77% (mean for all odors 45.2%) but was always significantly above chance (5.6%). However, there was no correlation between prediction accuracy for a given odor and the strength of responses of wild-type larvae to the same odor in a behavioral assay. We also used the model to predict the ability of the code to discriminate between pairs of odors. Some of these predictions were supported in a behavioral discrimination (masking) assay but others were not. We conclude that our model of the peripheral code represents basic features of odor detection and discrimination, yielding insights into the information available to higher processing structures in the brain.

Hippocampal context processing is critical for interference free recall of odor memories in rats.

Interference is a critical problem for memory systems and a primary cause of retrieval failure. One strategy for minimizing interference is to associate the items to be remembered with the context in which they were learned. For example, human subjects who learn two lists of words in separate contexts experience less interference and better recall than subjects who learn both lists in the same context. The hippocampus has long been known to be involved in processing contextual information and recent studies have shown that hippocampal neurons exhibit context-unique firing patterns that could serve as a neural representation of the context. These observations suggest that hippocampal context processing may play a critical role in overcoming interference. To test this hypothesis, we adapted the context based list learning procedure for use with rats. Control rats and rats given temporary lesions of the hippocampus were trained on two lists of eight odor pairs, either in the same context or in different contexts. To induce interference, some of the odors appeared on both lists with their predictive value reversed. As with human subjects, rats that learned the two lists in different contexts performed significantly better than rats that learned the lists in the same context. However, hippocampal lesions completely abolished this contextual learning advantage. We also trained rats on a low interference version of the task by using lists that did not contain any common items. Interestingly, rats with hippocampal lesions were entirely unimpaired when the learning situation did not involve high levels of interference. These findings are consistent with the idea that the hippocampus encodes contexts and further suggest that hippocampal context coding is beneficial because it provides a means of overcoming interference.

Memory for the Order of Events in Specific Sequences: Contributions of the Hippocampus and Medial Prefrontal Cortex

Episodic memory involves remembering the incidental order of a series of events that comprise a specific experience. Current models of temporal organization in episodic memory have demonstrated that animals can make memory judgments about the order of serially presented events; however, in these protocols, the animals can judge items based on their relative recency. Thus, it remains unclear as to whether animals use the specific order of items in forming memories of distinct sequences. To resolve this important issue in memory representation, we presented mice repeatedly with two widely separated odor sequences and then tested their natural exploratory preference between pairs of odors selected from within or between sequences. Intact animals preferred to investigate odors that occurred earlier within each sequence, indicating they did remember the order of events within each distinct sequence. In contrast, intact animals did not discriminate between pairs of odors from different sequences. These findings indicate that preferences were not guided by relative recency, which would be expected to support graded discrimination between widely separated events. Furthermore, damage to either the hippocampus or the medial prefrontal cortex eliminated order preference within sequences. Despite the deficit in order memory, control recognition tests showed that normal mice and mice with hippocampal or medial prefrontal damage could correctly identify previously experienced odors compared with novel odors. These findings provide strong evidence that animals form representations of the order of events within specific experiences and that the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex are essential to order memory.

An Artificial Neural Network Approach for Glomerular Activity Pattern Prediction Using the Graph Kernel Method and the Gaussian Mixture Functions

This paper proposes a neural network model for prediction of olfactory glomerular activity aimed at future application to the evaluation of odor qualities. The model's input is the structure of an odorant molecule expressed as a labeled graph, and it employs the graph kernel method to quantify structural similarities between odorants and the function of olfactory receptor neurons. An artificial neural network then converts odorant molecules into glomerular activity expressed in Gaussian mixture functions. The authors also propose a learning algorithm that allows adjustment of the parameters included in the model using a learning data set composed of pairs of odorants and measured glomerular activity patterns. We observed that the defined similarity between odorant structure has correlation of 0.3-0.9 with that of glomerular activity. Glomerular activity prediction simulation showed a certain level of prediction ability where the predicted glomerular activity patterns also correlate the measured ones with middle to high correlation in average for data sets containing 363 odorants.

Mammalian intermediate-term memory: New findings in neonate rat

The ability of anisomycin, a translation inhibitor, and actinomycin, a transcription inhibitor to disrupt a cAMP/PKA-dependent odor preference memory in neonate rat was examined. Previous reports in invertebrates had described a novel translation-dependent intermediate-term memory dissected with these inhibitors, but similar effects have not been reported in mammalian memory systems. When anisomycin was infused into the olfactory bulb after the pairing of peppermint odor and the β-adrenoceptor agonist isoproterenol (2mg/kg), short-term memory (1 or 3h) was intact, but intermediate (5h) and long-term (24h) memory was disrupted. When actinomycin was infused, only long-term memory was disrupted. This pattern of results is consistent with that reported in invertebrates for intermediate-term memory and led us to try a lower level of the unconditioned stimulus (isoproterenol) to isolate intermediate-term memory from long-term memory. Pups given a dose of 1.5mg/kg isoproterenol paired with peppermint odor showed memory for peppermint 5h, but not 24h, after training. These observations in the rat pup olfactory system parallel short-, intermediate- and long-term memory characteristics previously described in invertebrates. Odor preference memory in neonate rodents offers a tool to increase our understanding of the properties and mechanisms of multi-phasic memory in mammals.

Innate attractiveness and associative learnability of odors can be dissociated in larval Drosophila.

We investigate olfactory associative learning in larval Drosophila. A reciprocal training design is used, such that one group of animals receives a reward in the presence of odor X but not in the presence of odor Y (Train: X+ // Y), whereas another group is trained reciprocally (Train: X // Y+). After training, differences in odor preference between these reciprocally trained groups in a choice test (Test: X -- Y) reflect associative learning. The current study, after showing which odor pairs can be used for such learning experiments, 1) introduces a one-odor version of such reciprocal paradigm that allows estimating the learnability of single odors. Regarding this reciprocal one-odor paradigm, we show that 2) paired presentations of an odor with a reward increase odor preference above baseline, whereas unpaired presentations of odor and reward decrease odor preference below baseline; this suggests that odors can become predictive either of reward or of reward absence. Furthermore, we show that 3) innate attractiveness and associative learnability can be dissociated. These data deepen our understanding of odor-reward learning in larval Drosophila on the behavioral level, and thus foster its neurogenetic analysis.

A Behavioral Odor Similarity "Space" in Larval Drosophila

To provide a behavior-based estimate of odor similarity in larval Drosophila, we use 4 recognition-type experiments: 1) We train larvae to associate an odor with food and then test whether they would regard another odor as the same as the trained one. 2) We train larvae to associate an odor with food and test whether they prefer the trained odor against a novel nontrained one. 3) We train larvae differentially to associate one odor with food, but not the other one, and test whether they prefer the rewarded against the nonrewarded odor. 4) In an experiment like (3), we test the larvae after a 30-min break. This yields a combined task-independent estimate of perceived difference between odor pairs. Comparing these perceived differences to published measures of physicochemical difference reveals a weak correlation. A notable exception are 3-octanol and benzaldehyde, which are distinct in published accounts of chemical similarity and in terms of their published sensory representation but nevertheless are consistently regarded as the most similar of the 10 odor pairs employed. It thus appears as if at least some aspects of olfactory perception are “computed” in postreceptor circuits on the basis of sensory signals rather than being immediately given by them.

Phosphoinositide 3-Kinase-Dependent Antagonism in Mammalian Olfactory Receptor Neurons

Phosphoinositide signaling, in particular, phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) signaling, has been implicated in mediating inhibitory odorant input to mammalian olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs). To better understand this phenomenon we investigated PI3K-dependent inhibition between single odorant pairs. The concentration-dependent inhibition of the response of native rat ORNs to octanol by citral is PI3K dependent; blocking PI3K activity with the β and γ isoform-specific inhibitors AS252424 (5-[5-(4-fluoro-2-hydroxy-phenyl)-furan-2-ylmethylene]-thiazolidine-2,4-dione) and TGX221(7-methyl-2-(4-morpholinyl)-9-[1-(phenylamino)ethyl]-4H-pyrido [1,2-a]pyrimidin-4-one) eliminated or strongly reduced the inhibition. Interestingly, blocking PI3K also changed the apparent agonist strength of the otherwise noncompetitive antagonist citral. The excitation evoked by citral after blocking PI3K, could be suppressed by the adenylate cyclase III (ACIII) blockers MDL12330A (cis-N-(2-phenylcyclopentyl)-azacyclotridec-1-en-2-amine hydrochloride) and SQ22536 [9-(tetrahydro-2-furanyl)-9H-purin-6-amine], indicating that citral could also activate ACIII, presumably through the canonical olfactory receptor (OR). The G-protein G(β)γ subunit blockers suramin (8,8'-[carbonylbis[imino-3,1-phenylen ecarbonylimino(4-methyl-3,1-phenylene)carbonylimino]]bis-1,3,5-naphthalenetrisulfonic acid), gallein (3',4',5',6'-tetrahydroxyspiro[isobenzofuran-1(3H),9'-(9H)xanthen]-3-one), and M119 (cyclohexanecarboxylic acid [2-(4,5,6-trihydroxy-3-oxo-3H-xanthen-9-yl)-(9CI)]) suppressed citral's inhibition of the response to octanol, indicating that the activation of PI3K by citral was G-protein dependent, consistent with the idea that inhibition acts via the canonical OR. Lilial similarly antagonized the response to isoamyl acetate in other ORNs, indicating the effect generalizes to at least one other odorant pair. The ability of methyl-isoeugenol, limonene, α-pinene, isovaleric acid, and isosafrole to inhibit the response of other ORNs to IBMX (3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine)/forskolin in a PI3K-dependent manner argues the effect generalizes to yet other structurally dissimilar odorants. Our findings collectively raise the interesting possibility that the OR serves as a molecular logic gate when mammalian ORNs are activated by natural, complex mixtures containing both excitatory and inhibitory odorants.

CAMP and IP3 Signaling Pathways in HEK293 Cells Transfected with Canine Olfactory Receptor Genes

Olfactory receptors (ORs) expressed at the cell surface of olfactory sensory neurons lining the olfactory epithelium are the first actors of events leading to odor perception and recognition. As for other mammalian ORs, few dog OR have been deorphanized, mainly because of the absence of good methodology and the difficulties encountered to express ORs at the cell surface. Within this work, our aim was 1) to deorphanize a large subset of dog OR and 2) to compare the implication of the 2 main pathways, namely the cAMP and inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate (IP3) pathways, in the transduction of the olfactory message. For this, we used 2 independent tests to assess the importance of each of these 2 pathways and analyzed the responses of 47 canine family 6 ORs to a number of aliphatic compounds. We found these ORs globally capable of inducing intracellular calcium elevation through the IP3 pathway as confirmed by the use of specific inhibitors and/or a cAMP increase in response to aldehyde exposure. We showed that the implication of the cAMP or/and IP3 pathway was dependent upon the ligand-receptor combination rather than on one or the other partner. Finally, by exposing OR-expressing cells to the 21 possible pairs of C6-C12 aliphatic aldehydes, we confirmed that some odorant pairs may have an inhibitory or additive effect. Altogether, these results reinforce the notion that odorant receptor subfamilies may constitute functional units and call for a more systematic use of 2 complementary tests interrogating the cAMP and IP3 pathways when deorphanizing ORs.

The effect of odor on emotion is influenced by the affective properties of primed colors

Odor and color are powerful elicitors of subjective emotion, yet it is not clear whether emotions elicited by odor are influenced by color. The present study examined the influence of color on the affective ratings of odors from essential oils: lemon, lavender, and sandalwood. Two preliminary tests using the same mood scale (Multiple Mood Scale: MMS) to odors and colors revealed that there were affectively congruent (and incongruent) pairs of colors and odors. Thus, affectively congruent and incongruent colors were determined for the three odors based on these preliminary tests. In the Experiment, 19 participants rated their affective impression of odors under two conditions; the odors were primed by congruent colors and by incongruent colors. The results showed that the affective ratings of odor differed between congruent and incongruent color conditions. The ratings changed toward the color's affective properties that were found in a preliminary test. These findings suggest that the emotions elicited by an odor are influenced by the affective properties of a primed color.

A behavioural odour-similarity “space” in larval Drosophila

Event Abstract Back to Event A behavioural odour-similarity “space” in larval Drosophila Yi-chun Chen1, Dushyant Mishra1, Linda Schmitt1, Michael Schmuker2 and Bertram Gerber3* 1 University of Würzburg, Department of Neurobiology and Genetics, Germany 2 Freie Universität Berlin, Department for Biology, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Germany 3 University of Leipzig, Department of Genetics, Germany Introduction, aims, and methods: To provide a behaviour-based estimate of odour similarity in larval Drosophila, we use four recognition-type experiments: (i) We train larvae to associate an odour with food, and then test whether they would regard another odour as the same as the trained one. (ii) We train larvae to associate an odour with food, and test whether they prefer the trained odour against a novel, non-trained one. (iii) We train larvae differentially to associate one odour with food, but not the other one, and test whether they prefer the rewarded against the non-rewarded odour. (iv) In an experiment like (iii), we test the larvae after a 30min-break. This yields a combined, task-independent estimate of perceived difference between odour-pairs. Results: Comparing these perceived differences to published measures of physico-chemical difference reveals a weak correlation. A notable exception are 3-octanol and benzaldehyde, which are distinct in published accounts of chemical similarity, and in terms of their published sensory representation, but nevertheless are consistently regarded as the most similar of the ten odour pairs employed. Conclusions: It thus appears as if at least some aspects of olfactory perception are 'computed' in post-receptor circuits on the basis of sensory signals, rather than being immediately given by them. Acknowledgements Supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (IRTG 1156 Synaptic and behavioural plasticity, SPP 1392 Integrative analyses of olfaction) and the German Federal Ministry of Science and Technology (BMBF) (Bernstein Focus Insect-inspired robotics). BG is a Heisenberg Fellow of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. Thanks to K. Tschirner and K. Gerber for help with the experiments, and to M. Heisenberg, E. Buchner, B. Michels, A. Yarali, and T. Saumweber for discussion and support. Keywords: Learning, Olfaction, Perception, Sensory Physiology, Similarity Conference: Human Chemosensation 2010, Dresden, Germany, 2 Dec - 4 Dec, 2010. Presentation Type: Presentation Topic: Human Chemosensation 2010 Citation: Chen Y, Mishra D, Schmitt L, Schmuker M and Gerber B (2011). A behavioural odour-similarity “space” in larval Drosophila. Front. Neurosci. Conference Abstract: Human Chemosensation 2010. doi: 10.3389/conf.fnins.2011.85.00006 Copyright: The abstracts in this collection have not been subject to any Frontiers peer review or checks, and are not endorsed by Frontiers. They are made available through the Frontiers publishing platform as a service to conference organizers and presenters. The copyright in the individual abstracts is owned by the author of each abstract or his/her employer unless otherwise stated. Each abstract, as well as the collection of abstracts, are published under a Creative Commons CC-BY 4.0 (attribution) licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) and may thus be reproduced, translated, adapted and be the subject of derivative works provided the authors and Frontiers are attributed. For Frontiers’ terms and conditions please see https://www.frontiersin.org/legal/terms-and-conditions. Received: 26 Jan 2011; Published Online: 03 May 2011. * Correspondence: Prof. Bertram Gerber, University of Leipzig, Department of Genetics, 04103 Leipzig, Germany, bertram.gerber@lin-magdeburg.de Login Required This action requires you to be registered with Frontiers and logged in. To register or login click here. Abstract Info Abstract The Authors in Frontiers Yi-chun Chen Dushyant Mishra Linda Schmitt Michael Schmuker Bertram Gerber Google Yi-chun Chen Dushyant Mishra Linda Schmitt Michael Schmuker Bertram Gerber Google Scholar Yi-chun Chen Dushyant Mishra Linda Schmitt Michael Schmuker Bertram Gerber PubMed Yi-chun Chen Dushyant Mishra Linda Schmitt Michael Schmuker Bertram Gerber Related Article in Frontiers Google Scholar PubMed Abstract Close Back to top Javascript is disabled. Please enable Javascript in your browser settings in order to see all the content on this page.

Olfactory granule cell-specific silencing slows down odor discrimination time in mice

Olfactory granule cell-specific silencing slows down odor discrimination time in mice