Pacific Coast Of Mexico Research Articles

Species richness and similarity of metazoan parasite communities in three species of leatherjacket (Oligoplites: Pisces: Carangidae) from the Pacific coast of Mexico

AbstractSpecies richness and similarity in metazoan parasite communities of fishes can be influenced by several biotic (age, body size, vagility, feeding and social behavior, among others), and local abiotic (temperature, salinity, etc.) factors. The parasite communities of three species of Oligoplites, marine fishes from the Pacific coast of Mexico, were quantified and analyzed. Four hundred sixty‐eight leatherjackets (O. altus, n=94; O. saurus, n=260; and O. refulgens, n=114) were collected from February 2016 to June 2017 from five locations. Twenty‐eight species of metazoan parasites were recovered and identified: four species of Monogenea (adults), nine of Digenea (seven adults and two metacercariae); two of Cestoda (larvae); four of Nematoda (two adults and two larvae); four of Acanthocephala (two adults, one juvenile, and one cystacanth); four of Copepoda; and one Pentastomida (larvae). At the component community level, species richness ranged from 9 in O. saurus to 19 in O. altus. Different species of helminth dominated the component communities of each species of host. Community composition and species richness of parasites differed among the three species of host, locations, and sampling years. Host feeding behavior, body size, and vagility had the most influence on these differences.

Status of Olive Ridley Sea Turtles (Lepidochelys olivacea) After 29 Years of Nesting Rookery Conservation in Nayarit and Bahía de Banderas, Mexico

Abstract Olive ridleys (Lepidochelys olivacea) are the most numerous sea turtle species worldwide and also locally along the Pacific coast of Mexico. Published data on their distribution and nesting abundance along the coast of Nayarit and northern Jalisco, Mexico are, however, scarce. Here we describe the current extent of conservation activities and the history of efforts to protect sea turtles along this 394-km stretch of coastline. We found that 110 km (of the total of 394 km) are monitored by 18 sea turtle conservation programs, which in 2015 accounted for 43.2% of the total shoreline. Olive ridley sea turtle nesting was encountered on all monitored beaches. Our use of hatchery-protected nests as a measure of nesting levels is undoubtedly an underestimate of overall nesting in the region; however, it nevertheless provides a baseline of current nesting intensity in sites under conservation. Bahia de Banderas presented the highest nesting levels in the study area with 46.4% (3742 ± 904; mean ± SD) of t...

Integration of distributed generation technologies on sustainable buildings

This work addresses the optimal sizing and selection of the most used technologies reported in literature for energy and water supply of sustainable buildings. The addressed technologies includes Combined Heat and Power units, solar collectors, photovoltaic panels, conventional boilers, wind turbines, Organic Rankine Cycles, biogas production and water treatment systems. The selection technology problem is cast as an optimization model which takes into account embedded nonlinear behavior of the addressed equipment, especially the ones associated with operative efficiency, and dynamics of the storage units. The renewable energy generation, total annual cost, emissions generated and water consumption of the system are used as objective functions. Since some of these objective functions are contradictory, a multi-objective and multi-scenario Mixed Integer nonlinear optimization approach was used to reach trade-off solutions. The multi-objective approach presented allows to define the preferences of the designer based on predefined weights for reaching trade-off solutions using a dimensional approach. The environmental and energy profiles of a residential building in the Pacific Coast of Mexico are presented as Case Study. The results show the importance of including the nonlinear behavior of the technologies for defining a suitable operational policy as well as the effect of using different criteria about the design of water-energy systems.

Riqueza y distribución de equinoideos irregulares (Echinoidea: Cassiduloida, Clypeasteroida, Holasteroida y Spatangoida) del Pacífico central mexicano

Background. The diversity of irregular echinoids along the Pacific coast of Mexico is still not well known. This group has developed a selection of a restricted substrate; in addition, they are morphologically adapted to bury themselves in sediment that makes them difficult to locate in the field. Goals. To prepare a checklist of species of irregular echinoids including new records of the Cassiduloida, Clypeasteroida, Holasteroida, and Spatangoida orders found along the coasts of Nayarit, Jalisco, and Colima. Methods. Organisms were collected through various sampling operations undertaken between December 2013 and August 2017, in subtidal zones with Scuba diving gear (up to 10 m) and in sandy beaches using manual collection. In addition, we carried out a review of bibliographic sources and scientific collections. Results. Eighteen species from nine families and four orders of irregular urchins were registered for the coasts of Nayarit, Jalisco, and Colima. For Nayarit there are nine species and the species Encope micropora was registered for the first time in Playa Novillero. Ten species were recorded in Jalisco and 14 species in Colima, which for both states established new records for the species Rhyncholampas pacificus, Agassizia scrobiculata, Brissus obesus, Metalia spatagus, and Plagiobrissus pacificus. Conclusions. The literature review, complemented with field sampling, helped increase the diversity of species of irregular sea urchins in the central Mexican Pacific region. Determining the diversity of these species will make it possible to propose future studies on their ecology, in order to specify their ecological role in coastal ecosystems and their potential use for the conservation of marine communities.

Elevated Potential Instability in the Comma Head: Distribution and Development

The development of elevated potential instability within the comma head of a continental winter cyclone over the north-central United States is examined using a 63-h Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) Model simulation. The simulation is first compared to the observed cyclone. The distribution of most unstable convective available potential energy (MUCAPE) within the comma head is then analyzed. The region with positive MUCAPE was based from 2- to 4-km altitude with MUCAPE values up to 93 J kg−1. Backward trajectories from five sublayers within the region of elevated convection in the comma head were calculated to investigate how elevated potential instability developed. Air in the lowest sublayer, the source air for convective cells, originated 63 h earlier near Baja California at elevations between 2.25- and 2.75-km altitude. Air atop the layer where convection occurred originated at altitudes between 9.25 and 9.75 km in the Arctic, 5000 km away from the origin of air in the lowest sublayer. All air in the layer in which convection occurred originated over the Pacific coast of Mexico, the Pacific Ocean, or arctic regions of Canada. Diabatic processes strongly influenced air properties during transit to the comma head. Air underwent radiative cooling, was affected by mixing during passage over mountains, and underwent interactions with clouds and precipitation. Notably, no trajectory followed an isentropic surface during the transit. The changes in thermodynamic properties along the trajectories led to an arrangement of air masses in the comma head that promoted the development of potential instability and elevated convection.

Description of a new species of Pseudopecoelus (Trematoda: Opecoelidae) with new records of trematodes of marine fishes from the Pacific coast of Mexico

As a part of the revision of unidentified specimens harbored by the Coleccion Nacional de Helmintos of the Instituto de Biologia, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, we studied several specimens of trematodes collected and processed between 1950 and 1980 in marine fishes from several localities along the Pacific coast of Mexico. Among these specimens, we found 1 undescribed species of the genus Pseudopecoelus von Wicklen, 1946 ( Pseudopecoelus ibunami n. sp.) of the intestine of the spotted grouper Epinephelus analogus Gill, 1863 (Actinopterygii: Serranidae) from Bahia de La Paz, Baja California Sur. This species is the number 40 known for this genus worldwide and the fifth registered parasitizing fishes from Mexico. The new species differs from the 17 species of Pseudopecoelus with vitelline follicles distributed anteriorly to ventral sucker by having a combination of the following traits: 1) body elongate, narrow, with irregular posterior end, 2) testes and ovary deeply-lobed, and 3) external seminal vesicle reaching only the anterior margin of ventral sucker. In addition, in this study we present new host and geographical records for 6 species of trematodes in marine fishes from Mexico and Pachycreadium gastrocotylum (Manter, 1940) Manter, 1954 is recorded for the first time in this country.

Far-Field Tsunami Hazard Assessment Along the Pacific Coast of Mexico by Historical Records and Numerical Simulation

Historical records of the Chile (22 May 1960), Alaska (27 March 1964), and Tohoku (11 March 2011) tsunamis recorded along the Pacific Coast of Mexico are used to investigate the goodness of far-field tsunami modeling using a focal mechanism consisting in a uniform slip distribution on large thrust faults around the Pacific Ocean. The Tohoku 2011 tsunami records recorded by Deep ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunami (DART) stations, and at coastal tide stations, were used to validate transoceanic tsunami models applicable to the harbors of Ensenada, Manzanillo, and Acapulco on the coast of Mexico. The amplitude resulting from synthetic tsunamis originated by Mw ~ 9.3 earthquakes around the Pacific varies from ~ 1 to ~ 2.5 m, depending on the tsunami origin region and on the directivity due to fault orientation and waveform modification by prominent features of sea bottom relief.

A taxonomic account of species in the tribe Spongoclonieae (Ceramiaceae, Ceramiales, Rhodophyta) reported from Atlantic and Pacific Mexico

The tribe Spongoclonieae (Ceramiaceae subfam. Spongoclonioideae) is represented on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of Mexico by two genera: Pleonosporium with eight species and Spongoclonium with a single species. Pleonosporium boergesenii and P. borreri are both new records for Atlantic Mexico. Known in Pacific and Atlantic Mexico, P. rhizoideum has the widest distribution, while P. pygmaeum and P. vancouverianum have only a few records in the study area. Pleonosporium mexicanum is found mainly in tropical Pacific Mexico, and P. globuliferum has a discontinuous distribution in the Gulf of California and then in Salina Cruz, Oaxaca. In the case of P. squarrulosum morphological and genetic comparisons are needed to verify its presence in Mexico. The report of Spongoclonium caribaeum from intertidal Veracruz (Gulf of Mexico) represents the second record of this species for the Atlantic coast of Mexico. Detailed descriptions, information on nomenclature, collections studied, distribution and habitat are provided for each of the species. Measurements of vegetative characters and reproductive structures provide a consistent basis for identifying Atlantic and Pacific Mexican species of Pleonosporium and Spongoclonium.

Fatty acid profile, proteolytic activity and survival of Octopus bimaculatus paralarvae fed with enriched Artemia franciscana

ABSTRACTOctopus bimaculatus is an economically important food resource and a potential candidate for aquaculture diversification in the Pacific coast of Mexico; knowledge of its nutritional requirements is nil. For this reason, the composition of fatty acids of the newly hatched paralarvae was determined, as a criterion to define their requirements for essential fatty acids. We also evaluated the nutritional effect of live Artemia franciscana (8.2 ± 1.20 mm total length) enriched with tuna orbit oil (the TOO group) on the proteolytic activity and survival of the O. bimaculatus paralarvae in one experiment. The experimental cultivation of paralarvae fed with the TOO group was ended 17 days after hatching (DAH) with a survival of 1.93% and an increase of suckers per arm from five at hatching to nine, while those fed with the non-enriched A. franciscana (the control group) finished with only six suckers at 11 DAH and a 1.77% survival. Acid and alkaline proteolytic activity was detected at hatching, which increased in accordance with the age of the paralarvae. The TOO group had a significant influence on acid proteolytic activity of the paralarvae only at eight DAH; however, the final survival rate obtained in this treatment was slightly higher compared with those fed with the control group.

A bridge between oceans: overland migration of marine birds in a wind energy corridor

Located at the shortest overland route between the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean, Mexico's Tehuantepec Isthmus is a globally important migratory corridor for many terrestrial bird species. The Pacific coast of the Isthmus also contains a significant wetland complex that supports large multi‐species aggregations of non‐breeding waterbirds during the boreal winter. In recent years, extensive wind energy development has occurred in the plains bordering these wetlands, directly along the migratory flyway. Using recent studies of movement patterns of three marine‐associated bird species – reddish egrets Egretta rufescens, brown pelicans Pelecanus occidentalis, and red knots Calidris canutus – from the northern Gulf of Mexico, we assess the use of the isthmus as a migratory corridor. Our data provide evidence that marine birds from the Gulf region regularly overwinter along the Pacific coast of Mexico and use the isthmus as a migratory corridor, creating the potential for interaction with terrestrial wind farms during non‐breeding. This study is the first to describe migration by marine‐associated bird species between the Gulf of Mexico and Pacific coast. These data contribute new information toward ongoing efforts to understand the complex migration patterns of mobile marine species, with the goal of informing integrated conservation efforts for species whose year‐round habitat needs cross ecoregional and geopolitical boundaries.

An assessment of commonly employed satellite-based remote sensors for mapping mangrove species in Mexico using an NDVI-based classification scheme.

Optimizing the classification accuracy of amangrove forest is of utmost importance for conservationpractitioners. Mangrove forest mapping using satellite-based remote sensing techniques is by far the most common method of classification currently used given the logistical difficulties of field endeavors in these forested wetlands. However, there is now an abundance of options from which to choose in regards to satellite sensors, which has led to substantially different estimations of mangrove forest location and extent with particular concern for degraded systems. The objective of this study was to assess the accuracy of mangrove forest classification using different remotely sensed data sources (i.e., Landsat-8, SPOT-5, Sentinel-2, and WorldView-2) for a system located along the Pacific coast of Mexico. Specifically, we examined a stressed semiarid mangrove forest which offers a variety of conditions such as dead areas, degraded stands, healthy mangroves, and very dense mangrove island formations. The results indicated that Landsat-8 (30m per pixel)had the lowest overall accuracyat 64% and thatWorldView-2 (1.6m per pixel)hadthe highest at 93%. Moreover, theSPOT-5 and theSentinel-2 classifications (10m per pixel)were very similar havingaccuracies of 75 and 78%, respectively. In comparisontoWorldView-2,theother sensors overestimatedthe extentof Laguncularia racemosa and underestimatedthe extent of Rhizophora mangle. When considering such typeof sensors, the higher spatial resolutioncan be particularly important in mapping small mangrove islands that often occur in degraded mangrove systems.

Effects of hurricane disturbance on a tropical dry forest canopy in western Mexico

Hurricanes are meteorological events with intense effects on coastal ecosystems where the change in wind kinetic energy is first concentrated. The quantification of forest change and the understanding of forest recovery trajectories after hurricane impact require a series of observations from before and after the event. Our objective was to quantify the immediate and delayed impacts of two successive large hurricanes, Jova (October 2011) and Patricia (October 2015) on the canopy structure and some ecosystem functions of the Chamela tropical dry forest on the Pacific coast of Mexico. This forest is not typically affected by large disturbance events, but has a background of extreme rainfall seasonality and corresponding phenological responses. We used a series of detailed historic and recent measurements of canopy structure and Photosynthetic Photon Flux Density (PPFD) coupled with a continuous series of remote sensing indices (NDVI) to help assemble a comprehensive view of the effects from hurricanes Jova and Patricia, category 2 and 4 in the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale, respectively. From ground-based LiDAR observations of canopy structure we estimated aboveground forest biomass at various times before and after the hurricanes. The net aboveground biomass loss from the two hurricanes combined (26.4 Mg ha−1) was about 33.7% of the pre-hurricane value of 78.4 Mg ha−1. Biomass loss from the first hurricane was about 8.6 Mg ha−1 (11.0% of the original). Damage from the second storm alone might have been as much as 22.7%, depending on the course of recovery between hurricanes. We also found a temporary decline in the fraction of Absorbed Photosynthetically Active Radiation (fAPAR). NDVI, well correlated to fAPAR, also showed this pattern after both hurricanes. Canopy structure was considerably altered by both hurricanes, including leaf area and persistent vertical and horizontal woody components. The effects of wind and precipitation differed in several ways: whereas biomass loss appears related to hurricane wind energy, the duration of extended greenness may be due to the extra aseasonal precipitation. Our data suggest that different aspects of ecosystem structure and function will recover at different time scales. The recovery of greenness occurs rapidly, on the order of weeks to months but canopy cover and production will recover more slowly. The re-establishment of persistent canopy structure and total biomass will likely take decades in the absence of other major disturbances or active forest management.

Helminth parasite communities of spotted rose snapper Lutjanus guttatus from the Mexican Pacific

Summary The helminth communities of L. guttatus from Mazatlan Bay (MB) and Banderas Bay (BB), on the Pacific coast of Mexico, were studied during two consecutive years. A total of 536 fish were collected and 19 parasite taxa registered (six digeneans, two cestodes, nine nematodes, and two monogeneans). Infection levels of common helminth species (Helicometrina nimia, Siphodera vinaledwardsii, Tetraphyllidea gen. sp., Pseudoterranova sp., Ancyrocephalidae gen. sp. and Microcotyloides incisa) as well as the infracommunity indices varied significantly between MB and BB, and among dry and rainy seasons; however, no clear seasonal patterns were observed. Pseudoterranova larvae appeared frequently in MB, possibly because of the presence of the California sea lion in this locality. Similarity analysis did not show a clear separation of parasite species composition between both localities, which suggest that fish samples came from a single population of L. guttatus.

Taxonomic revision of the New World genus Ariopsis Gill (Siluriformes: Ariidae), with description of two new species

The taxonomy of sea catfishes (Ariidae) has had a complex history. A recent checklist of catfish species recognized Ariidae as having by far the highest number of species with uncertain status among siluriform families. One of the main problems concerns the classification and species delimitation of the amphiamerican genus Ariopsis Gill. Some recent studies have listed Ariopsis under the synonymy of other genera (e.g., Sciades Müller & Troschel), while other systematic revisions recognize Ariopsis as valid but have pointed out the need for clarification of the species composition of the genus. Based on morphological and molecular evidence, the systematic status and taxonomic limits of the genus Ariopsis are herein redefined. Two new species of Ariopsis are described, one only known from the Archipiélago de las Perlas, Pacific coast of Panama and another endemic to the Colombian Caribbean. Additionally, Ariopsis gilberti from the Pacific coast of Mexico and Ariopsis simonsi from Peru to Colombia (Eastern Pacific), previously listed as synonyms of Ariopsis seemanni, are herein resurrected. Finally, a molecular phylogeny is provided together with an identification key to the eight species in Ariopsis.

First record of the dinoflagellate Prorocentrum panamense (Prorocentrales, dinophyceae) in the Mexican Pacific from the Archipiélago de Revillagigedo

The dinoflagellate Prorocentrum panamense is reported for the first time on the Pacific coast of Mexico. Ten cells of P. panamense were found in network samples from surface waters in three islands of the Revillagigedo Archipelago where samples were collected in March 2017. The sampling sites They had a depth of approximately 60-70 m and the surface temperature of the water was between 21 and 23 ºC.

The 2011 Tohoku Tsunami on the Coast of Mexico: A Case Study

The Tohoku (East Japan) earthquake of 11 March 2011 (M w 9.0) generated a great trans-oceanic tsunami that spread throughout the Pacific Ocean, where it was measured by numerous coastal tide gauges and open-ocean DART (Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis) stations. Statistical and spectral analyses of the tsunami waves recorded along the Pacific coast of Mexico have enabled us to estimate the principal parameters of the waves along the coast and to compare statistical features of the tsunami with other tsunamis recorded on this coast. We identify coastal “hot spots”—Manzanillo, Zihuatanejo, Acapulco, and Ensenada—corresponding to sites having highest tsunami hazard potential, where wave heights during the 2011 event exceeded 1.5–2 m and tsunami-induced currents were strong enough to close port operations. Based on a joint spectral analysis of the tsunamis and background noise, we reconstructed the spectra of tsunami waves in the deep ocean and found that, with the exception of the high-frequency spectral band (>5 cph), the spectra are in close agreement with the “true” tsunami spectra determined from DART bottom pressure records. The departure of the high-frequency spectra in the coastal region from the deep-sea spectra is shown to be related to background infragravity waves generated in the coastal zone. The total energy and frequency content of the Tohoku tsunami is compared with the corresponding results for the 2010 Chilean tsunami. Our findings show that the integral open-ocean tsunami energy, I 0, was ~2.30 cm2, or approximately 1.7 times larger than for the 2010 event. Comparison of this parameter with the mean coastal tsunami variance (451 cm2) indicates that tsunami waves propagating onshore from the open ocean amplified by 14 times; the same was observed for the 2010 tsunami. The “tsunami colour” (frequency content) for the 2011 Tohoku tsunami was “red”, with about 65% of the total energy associated with low-frequency waves at frequencies 35 min). The “red colour” (i.e., the prevalence of low-frequency waves) in the 2011 Tohoku, as well as in the 2010 Chile tsunamis, is explained by the large extension of the source areas. In contrast, the 2014 and 2015 Chilean earthquakes had much smaller source areas and, consequently, induced “bluish” (high-frequency) tsunamis.

Multiple paternity in the East Pacific green turtle (Chelonia mydas) from the Pacific coast of Mexico

Multiple paternity is a common phenomenon among marine turtles. This behavior is associated with male density and sperm storage in marine species, but no fitness benefits have been detected in offspring from multiple-sired nests. The green turtle (Chelonia mydas) has been commonly studied around the world. Evidence of multiple paternity in C. mydas ranges from almost zero to 100%. In this study, we investigate multiple paternity in C. mydas using microsatellites to determine the number of males that fertilized clutches during two nesting seasons at a high-density nesting beach in the west coast in Michoacán state, Mexico. The minimum number of eggs per nest needed to detect multiple paternity and the number of males involved in fertilization were also assessed. The results indicated that multiple paternity occurred in up to 75% of the nest samples. In addition, the minimum number of eggs per nest required to detect multiple genotype contributions was 6.66 for two fathers, 12.44 for three fathers, 15.49 for four fathers and 20.24 for five fathers. Females fertilized their eggs using contributions from different males between and within clutches during the nesting season. This behavior led to a multiple paternity pattern, which can be advantageous during different life stages but not necessarily during early life.

First record and range extension of the Galapagos slipper lobster, Scyllarides astori (Decapoda, Scyllaridae) in the central Pacific coast of Mexico mainland.

The Galapagos slipper lobster Scyllarides astori was found for the first time off western Mexico mainland. A male and two female specimens were collected in south Jalisco and north Colima. This represents a new record from central Pacific coast of Mexico and a range extension of 700 km southwards, as the species was previously reported from the Gulf of California, 780 km eastwards from Revillagigedo Archipelago and 2400 km northwestwards from Isla del Coco and Galapagos Archipelago.

A first-order seismotectonic regionalization of Mexico for seismic hazard and risk estimation

The purpose of this work is to define a seismic regionalization of Mexico for seismic hazard and risk analyses. This seismic regionalization is based on seismic, geologic, and tectonic characteristics. To this end, a seismic catalog was compiled using the more reliable sources available. The catalog was made homogeneous in magnitude in order to avoid the differences in the way this parameter is reported by various agencies. Instead of using a linear regression to converts from m b and M d to M s or M w , using only events for which estimates of both magnitudes are available (i.e., paired data), we used the frequency-magnitude relations relying on the a and b values of the Gutenberg-Richter relation. The seismic regions are divided into three main categories: seismicity associated with the subduction process along the Pacific coast of Mexico, in-slab events within the down-going COC and RIV plates, and crustal seismicity associated to various geologic and tectonic regions. In total, 18 seismic regions were identified and delimited. For each, the a and b values of the Gutenberg-Richter relation were determined using a maximum likelihood estimation. The a and b parameters were repeatedly estimated as a function of time for each region, in order to confirm their reliability and stability. The recurrence times predicted by the resulting Gutenberg-Richter relations obtained are compared with the observed recurrence times of the larger events in each region of both historical and instrumental earthquakes.

Genotyping Toxoplasma gondii with the B1 Gene in Naturally Infected Sheep from an Endemic Region in the Pacific Coast of Mexico.

Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan parasite with a broad ecological valence, which has been detected in a wide range of hosts and landscapes. Although the genus is considered monospecific, in recent years it has been demonstrated to exhibit more genetic variability than previously known. In Mexico, there are few genotyping studies, which suggest that classical, autochthonous, and atypical strains are circulating. The goal of this study was to describe T. gondii genetic diversity in naturally infected sheep from Colima, Mexico. This is a good site to study ecological aspects of this parasite since it is located between the Nearctic and Neotropical ecozones and it includes domestic and wild risks for transmission. We analyzed 305 tissue samples of semicaptive sheep from six coastal and central zones of Colima and border zones of Michoacán. We used an 803 bp amplicon of the B1 gene to genotype T. gondii and seroprevalence was determined by ELISA. Indexes for genetic diversity and genetic differentiation were calculated and compared with reference strains from North America (NA) and South America (SA). Twenty-three tissue samples were positive for the B1 gene by PCR, which were sequenced. Crude prevalence was 24.4%. The genetic analysis showed 16 variable sites along the 803 bp region that grouped all sequences into 13 haplotypes in the phylogenetic tree. Bayesian and haplotype network analysis showed nine new B1-types, of which three were frequent and six had unique alleles. Comparisons among sequence sets revealed that the Mexican population had lower differentiation than SA and an intermediate genetic variability between South America and North America. The B1 gene analysis showed new T. gondii haplotypes in naturally infected sheep; therefore, this marker could be initially used in molecular screening studies to identify potentially virulent genotypes of this parasite using natural host samples directly.