Over-the-air Research Articles

Intelligent Connected Vehicle Information Security Risks and Countermeasures

The development of intelligent connected vehicles has promoted the upgrading of the transportation system, but it also brings challenges in information security. This paper analyzes the current information security vulnerabilities of intelligent connected vehicles, including attack methods, security vulnerabilities, and protective measures. Firstly, through the analysis of the existing attack methods and their principles, the potential security vulnerabilities and threats are summarized. Then, based on security and cryptography technology, relevant measures for information security protection are proposed to achieve all-round protection of intelligent connected vehicle information. Finally, The paper puts forward the measures to solve the information security problem of intelligent connected vehicle from three aspects: Encryption and Authentication, Firewall and Intrusion Detection System, and Over-the-air (OTA).

Over-the-air upgrading for enhancing security of intelligent connected vehicles: a survey

The continuous improvement in the connectivity, automation and autonomy levels of Intelligent Connected Vehicles (ICVs) significantly increases the probability of potential security threats. Over-the-Air (OTA) is a promising technique for upgrading features of ICVs and enhancing their reliability and security against environmental disturbances as well as malicious attacks. To better understand the potential security risks and possible countermeasures, we survey research works in ICV security during OTA from cloud upgrade, terminal upgrade, and object upgrade. We also summarize existing methods in OTA upgrading techniques and systematically investigate the overall framework of OTA upgrading methods from the perspectives of Software-Over-the-Air (SOTA) and Firmware-Over-the-Air (FOTA).We further discuss possible mitigation strategies and open issues yet to be resolved in this research direction. This survey shows that OTA provides a powerful technique for upgrading the ICV features and improving ICV security.

Exploring the factors driving the sustainable consumer intentions for over-the-air updates in electric vehicles

With the development of intelligent and connected vehicles, over-the-air (OTA) updates empower cars with continuous evolution capabilities, leading to an accelerated penetration rate and steady market share growth. This research endeavors to construct a comprehensive model to understand and predict sustainable consumer intentions to purchase electric vehicles (EVs) and their inclination to pay for OTA updates for EVs. Empirical validation of the model was conducted through partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM), using responses from 504 Chinese participants gathered through an online survey. The study demonstrates that instrumental attributes, product innovativeness, and driving experience have indirect effects on the intention to purchase both EVs and OTA updates. This indirect effect is observed through the construct of relationship quality, which includes trust and satisfaction. Moreover, satisfaction and trust are found to have significant and positive associations with purchase intentions for both EVs and OTA updates. This research offers valuable insights for policymakers and marketers seeking to promote EV purchases and OTA updates. It also contributes to the academic implication of intention and behavior in the context of sustainable transportation.

Sofware-Defined Radio Testbed for I/Q Imbalanced Single-Carrier Communication Systems

An end-to-end testbed for In-phase and Quadrature (I/Q) Imbalance (IQI) communication systems based on Software-Defined Radio (SDR) is presented. The scenario under consideration is a Single-Input–Single-Output (SISO) single-carrier communication where the transmitter is heavily affected by IQI, whose effects are mitigated through digital signal processing at the receiver. The presented testbed is highly configurable, enabling the testing of different communication and IQI parameters. Crucial insights into the practical implementation of IQI mitigation techniques, specifically through the use of asymmetric signaling at the receiver, are provided. Initially, a detailed description of the mathematical framework is given. This framework serves as the foundation for the subsequent discussion on system implementation, effectively bridging the gap between research on IQI mitigation and its practical application in single-carrier architectures. Over-The-Air (OTA) Symbol Error Rate (SER) measurements for different constellations validate the receiver design and implementation. The source code of the presented testbed is publicly available.

Cybersecurity in Autonomous Vehicles—Are We Ready for the Challenge?

The rapid development and deployment of autonomous vehicles (AVs) present unprecedented opportunities and challenges in the transportation sector. While AVs promise enhanced safety, efficiency, and convenience, they also introduce significant cybersecurity vulnerabilities due to their reliance on advanced electronics, connectivity, and artificial intelligence (AI). This review examines the current state of cybersecurity in autonomous vehicles, identifying major threats such as remote hacking, sensor manipulation, data breaches, and denial of service (DoS) attacks. It also explores existing countermeasures including intrusion detection systems (IDSs), encryption, over-the-air (OTA) updates, and authentication protocols. Despite these efforts, numerous challenges remain, including the complexity of AV systems, lack of standardization, latency issues, and resource constraints. This review concludes by highlighting future directions in cybersecurity research and development, emphasizing the potential of AI and machine learning, blockchain technology, industry collaboration, and legislative measures to enhance the security of autonomous vehicles.

Sub-6 GHz beamforming with low-cost software-defined radio: Design, testing, and performance evaluation

The rapid evolution of mobile communication systems has led to the introduction of novel technologies and techniques that address existing challenges, such as interference caused by multiple users and transmission through the millimetre-wave band. In this paper, we present a novel approach that utilises a low-cost software defined radio (SDR) unit to enable transmitting and receiving beamforming in the sub-6 GHz band. We provide a detailed account of the underlying concepts and background of beamforming and SDR, outline the design of multiple components, and report on the comprehensive testing and verification of a real-life prototype using over-the-air (OTA) methods. Our results demonstrate that the proposed approach achieves outstanding performance, with measurements of bit error rate (BER) that outperform existing solutions. In summary, this work contributes to the ongoing efforts to enhance mobile communication systems by providing an innovative, high-performance solution that is cost-effective and reliable using SDR technology in the sub-6 GHz band.

BlockFog: A Blockchain-based Framework for Intrusion Defense in IOT Fog Computing

In the rapidly evolving domain of the Internet of Things (IoT) and fog computing, maintaining security, scalability, and efficient operation poses significant challenges. Addressing these issues, this study introduces "BlockFog," a novel blockchain-based framework designed to bolster intrusion defense in IoT fog computing environments. The core objective of BlockFog is to counteract the vulnerabilities inherent in decentralized IoT ecosystems by leveraging blockchain technology for enhanced security and transparency. The framework's innovative design integrates crucial components such as Device Onboarding & Identity Management, Data Integrity & Logging, Smart Contract-Driven Intrusion Detection, Automated Blockchain Responses, Secure Peer-to-Peer Communication, and a Lightweight Consensus Mechanism. These elements work collectively to ensure the security and functionality of IoT devices within the fog computing paradigm. BlockFog stands out for its meticulous approach to handling high transaction volumes with off-chain computations and layer-2 solutions, ensuring data integrity and facilitating seamless audit processes. The framework's resilience is further demonstrated through its robust response to evolving cyber threats, incorporating Over-the-Air (OTA) updates and advanced data protection mechanisms like zero-knowledge proofs. A comparative analysis highlights BlockFog's superior performance against existing models. The results reveal BlockFog's lower latency rates in normal, high traffic, and attack scenarios, its higher throughput efficiency, and its more effective resource utilization in terms of CPU, memory, and bandwidth usage. Moreover, BlockFog exhibits an enhanced ability to detect and respond to malicious activities, including DDoS attacks, with significantly higher accuracy than its counterparts. These findings underscore BlockFog's potential in redefining security and operational paradigms in IoT fog computing, making it a robust, agile, and transparent framework suitable for the current digital landscape.

Implementation of a Cross-Platform Development Board for Embedded Internet-of-Things Systems

A prototype of a printed circuit board (PCB) with radio frequency electromagnetic compatibility specifications is designed using the top-down methodology for the two-layer Internet of Things with free open-source hardware and software, using the following techniques: requirements, analysis, modular design, schematics, manufacturing and functional testing. The study of the influence of the design parameters is carried out applying the standards of the Printed Circuit Institute and the characteristics of the technological production process for a free multiplatform for wireless networks. Finally, functional tests of the universal asynchronous transmit and receive (UART) communication with the microcontroller, the radio modules, the general-purpose input and output pins, and the over-the-air (OTA) configuration are performed to program the board wirelessly, without the need of a universal serial bus (USB) interface.

Switchable metasurface absorber used for enabling reconfigurable power angular spectrum in reverberation chamber

The reverberation chamber (RC) provides a fast and repeatable method for over-the-air (OTA) testing of wireless devices. Moreover, the RC-based method can reduce the OTA testing cost to a great extent. But the defect of the RC is also obvious. Compared to a multi-probe anechoic chamber, the channel spatial characteristics in RC are uncontrollable. The device under test in an RC usually sees a statistically isotropic channel and there is a strong impediment to control the channel in RC, which constrains the RC’s OTA applications. In this paper, we propose a method to realize reconfigurable RC enabling arbitrary channel power angular spectrum (PAS) by using a switchable metasurface absorber. Specifically, the unit cell of the metasurface can be switched between the reflection and absorption states by providing different bias voltages. By mounting the switchable metasurface absorber on the RC’s inside walls, the boundary conditions of the RC in the covered area could be switched electronically. Consequently, the channel’s PAS can be controlled by changing the local states of the switchable metasurface absorber. As a proof of concept, a prototype of the switchable metasurface absorber is made and comprehensive experiments are conducted to verify the effectiveness of the switchable metasurface applied to enable reconfigurable PAS in RC.

Combining Cyber Security Intelligence to Refine Automotive Cyber Threats

Modern vehicles increasingly rely on electronics, software, and communication technologies (cyber space) to perform their driving task. Over-The-Air (OTA) connectivity further extends the cyber space by creating remote access entry points. Accordingly, the vehicle is exposed to security attacks that are able to impact road safety. A profound understanding of security attacks, vulnerabilities, and mitigations is necessary to protect vehicles against cyber threats. While automotive threat descriptions, such as in UN R155, are still abstract, this creates a risk that potential vulnerabilities are overlooked and the vehicle is not secured against them. So far, there is no common understanding of the relationship of automotive attacks, the concrete vulnerabilities they exploit, and security mechanisms that would protect the system against these attacks. In this article, we aim at closing this gap by creating a mapping between UN R155, Microsoft STRIDE classification, Common Attack Pattern Enumeration and Classification (CAPEC), and Common Weakness Enumeration (CWE). In this way, already existing detailed knowledge of attacks, vulnerabilities, and mitigations is combined and linked to the automotive domain. In practice, this refines the list of UN R155 threats and therefore supports vehicle manufacturers, suppliers, and approval authorities to meet and assess the requirements for vehicle development in terms of cybersecurity. Overall, 204 mappings between UN threats, STRIDE, CAPEC attack patterns, and CWE weaknesses were created. We validated these mappings by applying our Automotive Attack Database (AAD) that consists of 361 real-world attacks on vehicles. Furthermore, 25 additional attack patterns were defined based on automotive-related attacks.

MQTree: Secure OTA Protocol Using MQTT and MerkleTree.

The escalating advancement in Software-Defined Vehicles (SDVs) necessitates a formidable strategy for firmware updates, where traditional methods often fall short of guaranteeing absolute integrity. Although decentralization has been explored in studies for firmware integrity verification using blockchain technology, it lacks comprehensive validation in the context of automotive over-the-air (OTA) updates. By recognizing the limitations of current practices and the partial validation of decentralized approaches, such as blockchain, in the automotive sector, our study introduces a novel mechanism for firmware over-the-air (FOTA) updates. This mechanism is grounded in the widely adopted message queuing telemetry transport (MQTT) protocol, integral to the Internet of Things (IoT) domain, and leverages Merkle tree-based blockchain verification to fortify the fidelity and efficiency of firmware updates. Our proposed solution not only prioritizes the stability crucial to automotive OTA updates but also ensures that performance is not compromised. This dual focus on reliability and efficiency represents a significant stride forward in the development of secure, scalable SDV firmware update protocols.

A CFO-Assisted Algorithm for Wireless Time-Difference-of-Arrival Localization Networks: Analytical Study and Experimental Results

Localization of wireless transmitters is traditionally done using Radio Frequency (RF) sensors that measure the propagation delays between the transmitter and a set of anchor receivers. One of the major challenges of wireless localization systems is the need for anchor nodes to be time-synchronized to achieve accurate localization of a target node. Using a reference transmitter is an efficient way to synchronize the anchor nodes Over-The-Air (OTA), but such algorithms require multiple periodic messages to achieve tight synchronization. In this paper, we propose a new synchronization method that only requires a single message from a reference transmitter. The main idea is to use the Carrier Frequency Offset (CFO) from the reference node, alongside the Time of Arrival (ToA) of the reference node messages, to achieve tight synchronization. The ToA allows the anchor nodes to compensate for their absolute time offset, and the CFO allows the anchor nodes to compensate for their local oscillator drift. Additionally, using the CFO of the messages sent by the reference nodes and the target nodes also allow us to estimate the speed of the targets. The error of the proposed algorithm is derived analytically and is validated through controlled laboratory experiments. Finally, the algorithm is validated by realistic outdoor vehicular measurements with a software-defined radio testbed.

An OTA Upgrade Differential Compression Algorithm Based on Suffix Array Induced Sorting and BsDiff Methods

As the scale and complexity of software for industrial equipment increases, the risk of defects being introduced into the software also increases. Over-the-air (OTA) technology eliminates software defects by regularly updating and maintaining the software equipment. However, downloading an upgraded file is time-consuming. The differential compression algorithm can rapidly complete OTA software upgrades. To solve the low-efficiency problem of suffix array sorting in the BsDiff algorithm, a fusion algorithm based on the suffix array induced sorting and BsDiff methods was proposed to reduce the time consumption in the OTA upgrade process. The execution of the difference algorithm in the cloud was simulated using bench experiments. Subsequently, the function and performance of the proposed algorithm were experimentally evaluated. The results showed that the optimized algorithm could save more than 35% of the time compared to the original algorithm, which improved the OTA upgrade efficiency to a certain extent.

ESIM and blockchain integrated secure zero-touch provisioning for autonomous cellular-IoTs in 5G networks

The growth of the Internet of Things (IoT) paradigm has resulted in a proliferation of connected devices and their applications. Autonomous IoT (AIoT) refers to a network of interconnected devices that operate without human intervention, making decisions and performing tasks autonomously. Traditional methods of provisioning IoT devices, such as manual configuration and over-the-air updates, are error-prone and insecure. The emergence of eSIMs (embedded SIMs) provides a viable solution for secure and flexible identity management in IoT devices. This work implements a low-cost, zero-touch remote provisioning system using GSMA standard Over-The-Air (OTA) IoT-SAFE protocol. This research predicts that future IoT devices will be eSIM-enabled, which are simple to configure, provision, validate profiles, and check security policies remotely. IoT onboarding processes are designed where blockchains are used to verify immutable repositories to store this network manifests, verifiable by Ethereum smart contracts. The integrated framework combines blockchain contracts, eSIM-based remote SIM provisioning through IoT-SAFE protocol, and SDN to manage IoT ecosystems' security. The proposed solution is evaluated using simulations and security analysis, and it demonstrates its feasibility at scale and resilience to attacks even under insecure environments. When compared with the baseline IEEE 802.15.4 protocol, our SDN-based Remote-SIM provisioning system (SIeSIM) reduces overhead to about 240 ms Time-To-Provision (TTP), outperforming manual provisioning by nearly 320 % and 210 % compared to expert provisioning in terms of TTP performances, respectively.

Secure Over-the-Air (OTA) Update Mechanisms for ADAS

This research aims to develop robust, resilient, and user-friendly over-the-air (OTA) software update mechanisms for advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) in modern vehicles. The study conducts a comprehensive review on existing OTA update approaches, identifies security threats and vulnerabilities, and proposes an algorithm that incorporates cryptographic techniques, secure authentication, firmware validation, and rollback protection. The methodology utilized in this study involves secure package generation, distribution, installation, and monitoring, as well as adhering to automotive cybersecurity standards, such as ISO/SAE 21434 and UNECE WP.29. Extensive evaluation of OTA systems is important as it helps to assess their resilience against adversarial attacks, ensures regulatory compliance, and optimizes usability through user studies. The results demonstrate successful execution of secure OTA update mechanisms, preventing risks, fostering reliability and safety of ADAS software updates. The case studies highlight real-world deployments, best practices, and the effectiveness of the developed solution in improving automotive cybersecurity and functional safety.

A Wideband If Receiver Chip for Flexibly Scalable mmWave Subarray Combining and Interference Rejection

Large-scale multibeam phased array systems suffer from interbeam interference (IBI) that should be canceled either in the analog or digital domain. In wideband systems such as fifth generation (5G), interference rejection over a wide bandwidth is challenging to achieve, not only due to nonidealities of the receiver chain but also due to the properties of the radio channel. This article presents a scalable IBI cancellation (IBIC) scheme at intermediate frequency (IF) using an IF receiver (IF-RX) chip. The IF-RX provides the flexibility of not just interference rejection between the subarrays but also wideband signal combining over multiple subarrays. It also provides wideband filtering before the analog-to-digital converter (ADC) to support 5G channel bandwidths of up to 800 MHz, high linearity, and low noise figure. A calibration method is proposed to find the cancellation coefficients for the IF-RX in measurements. Furthermore, a simplified over-the-air (OTA) IBIC model for analyzing rejection bandwidth limitations is presented. Interference rejection performance is demonstrated through the OTA measurements using 5G new radio (5G NR) signals. In the OTA measurements, 34–37-dB rejection was achieved for 50–100-MHz signals, while error vector magnitude (EVM) requirements of the 5G standards were met with good margins. Finally, the interference rejection over <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$4\ttimes 100$</tex-math> </inline-formula> MHz carrier aggregated 5G NR waveform was demonstrated.

Error Vector Magnitude as a Performance Standard for Antennas in the Millimeter-Wave Era: Part 2: Modeling, simulation, and measurement methods

The error vector magnitude (EVM) is a comprehensive measure of the amplitude and phase distortion of digitally modulated signals and a potential tool for characterizing the performance of active beamforming arrays, especially at millimeter-wave frequencies, because of the high level of integration and limited spacing between the radiating elements. A review of the EVM measurement process and fundamental principles for time-domain demodulation with a vector signal analyzer (VSA) and spectral correlation with a vector network analyzer (VNA) was presented in [1]. This article demonstrates how researchers have modeled and measured impairments from antenna and phased array signal transmission to characterize their influence on the EVM of single and multicarrier digital signals. It presents examples of simulation models and measurements of the distortion from ultrawideband (UWB) passive antenna transmission, power amplifier (PA) nonlinearities, and phased array beam squint and beam scan intersymbol interference (ISI). A brief survey of over-the-air (OTA) test ranges for EVM analysis is also provided. This overview of state-of-the-art EVM simulation and measurement methods is intended to help interested readers understand and enhance the EVM performance analysis methods applied to antennas and phased arrays in this new era of millimeter-wave communications.

A Review of the 3GPP-Compatible Model of 5G in-Band Emissions in Uplink Resource Allocation in Hybrid Network

In-band emission represents a critical metric for assessing the reliability of a mobile communication network and ensuring quality of service (QoS) for end users. In the 5G network deployment, due to the limited availability of frequency spectrum, mobile users and internet-of-things (IoT) devices will transmit on the same frequency bands, necessitating more stringent in-band interference management to facilitate interference-free communication. In order to ensure that high-power user equipment (UEs) accessing the shared 5G uplink channel are able to communicate without disruption and without interfering with low-power devices, it is imperative to undertake in-band emissions analysis and control. This paper explores the issue of in-band emission interference, which pertains to the interference that arises in unallocated sub-bands within a specific bandwidth. Specifically, this investigation delves into the modeling approach and regulated in-band emissions within a non-standalone (NSA) 5G network. To verify compliance with 3GPP requirements for in-band emissions regulations, an over-the-air (OTA) testing system is employed to examine in-band emissions in the physical uplink shared channel (PUSCH). The study employs various resource block distributions, offsets, and modulation techniques within the specified NR channel bandwidth. All simulations are based on 3GPP specifications.

Robust Position Control for an Electrical Automatic Transmission under Gear-Shifting Link Friction

The automotive industry is evolving, with software becoming a vital part of vehicles. Conventional automakers are shifting to software-centric entities, embracing over-the-air (OTA) updates and service-centric models. To move software-driven vehicles, the vehicle must also be electrified. Several automobile manufacturers are electrifying vehicle parts, and recently, a gear shift selector for automatic transmissions was adapted from mechanical to electronic. However, as conventional mechanical systems are modified to electrical systems, problems such as shift delay and accuracy emerge. This study addresses these problems that emerge in the electronic system type of automatic transmission, including a gear shift selector developed to electrify automobiles. Accordingly, we first analyze the structure of automatic transmission systems, then define the operation sequence. Next, a novel position control algorithm based on a disturbance observer is proposed to reduce shift delay and increase accuracy. The proposed algorithm operates harmoniously with the vehicle control unit (VCU). To verify the proposed algorithm, a hardware-in-the-loop simulation (HILS) was developed to experiment with vehicle shifting using a commercial electronic gear shift selector. Moreover, the proposed control algorithm for gear shifting in an automatic transmission was analyzed using experimental results obtained by assuming a specific driving situation in the HILS.

Resistance frequency selection surface framed reflector antenna for 5G OTA measurement

AbstractIndirect far field (IFF) over‐the‐air (OTA) test could be one of the most applicable test methods for 5G mmWave devices. The compact antenna test range (CATR) method has been introduced to the OTA test by 3GPP. Conventional metallic parabolic reflectors without edge treatment can lead to serious edge diffraction which results in high noise and low accuracy. The serrated reflector improves edge diffraction but performs poorly at low frequencies. Reflector antenna with a resistance frequency selection surface (RFSS) frame is proposed for 5G OTA CATR measurement at millimeter frequency, which collimates spherical incident waves into quasi‐plane waves in a relatively short distance, thus forming a quiet zone (QZ) in which large devices under test can be measured in small chamber. In this paper, the reflector with RFSS is investigated through the numerical and experimental methods, it is found that serrated RFSS frame with low edge diffraction could achieve the excellent QZ, which could be helpful in miniaturing CATR chambers for 5G OTA measurement.