Lake Outburst Research Articles

Socioeconomic impacts and government assistance in the aftermath of landslides in Mayoon since 2010: A qualitative study on the vulnerable village of Hunza, Pakistan

The primary objective of this study is to assess the socioeconomic conditions of the inhabitants of village and evaluate the level of government support provided to them following the landslide. Additionally, the study aims to explore any changes in gender roles that occurred during the resettlement process. Mayoon is a modest village situated in Lower Hunza that has endured multiple landslides, rendering it susceptible to such natural like avalanches, landslides, Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs), rock fall and flash floods. However, the frequency of landslides has increased since 2010, between 1994 and 2014, there were 78 floods, 16 landslides, and 8 debris flows. Ten participants i.e., five males and five females were purposively selected for this research. A semi-structured interview protocol was prepared keeping in view literature and personal observations, which consisted of 12 open-ended questions. Thematic analysis was used to analyze data. Four major themes were extracted from transcribed data namely, post disaster impact on living, resettlement issues, government role and gender role and disaster. It was discovered that most residents of Mayoon village, who were mainly farmers relying on agriculture, suffered from the landslides. The disaster not only destroyed the farmlands but also the cultural such as cultural sites once they gathered for religious activities. Once they gathered to perform their religious activities, the region was devastated by the disaster. Marriages, cultural events, and festivals were celebrated with zeal and zest, but post-disaster celebrations changed the way they were celebrated earlier. Many affected people had to move to different areas for safety, resulting in the loss of social connections among them. Despite knowing the risk of more landslides, most of them resettled in the same village due to unavailability of sufficient land. The local government failed to relocate them to a safer place and is unable to provide services to the affected individuals.

Anticipating Climate Catastrophe: The Impacts of Diminished Snowfall in Gilgit-Baltistan and Azad Jammu and Kashmir

Climate change poses a significant threat to regions like Azad Jammu & Kashmir (AJ&K) and Gilgit-Baltistan (GB), where vulnerabilities are pronounced. Decreased snowfall alters water supplies and agriculture, exacerbating climate-related challenges. Integrated strategies, drawing on research, policy, and community efforts, are crucial for addressing these impacts effectively. Scientists agree on human-induced global warming, impacting precipitation patterns, temperatures, and glaciers in GB and AJ&K. Such changes affect water availability, agriculture, and increase the frequency of severe weather events, endangering local livelihoods. Of particular concern is the accelerated melting of glaciers in the Hunza Basin, heightening the risk of Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) and posing a threat to downstream communities. Addressing climate change requires comprehensive approaches. This includes infrastructure resilience, community preparedness, sustainable agriculture, and improved early warning systems. Collaboration across sectors, investment in climate science, and empowering local communities are essential. Urgent action, at local, national, and global levels, is vital to mitigate climate change impacts and secure a sustainable future for all vulnerable regions like GB and AJ&K.

The Threats of Climate Change in Nepal: Natural Catastrophes and Global Conflict Frontiers

Nepal, nestled amidst the majestic Himalayas, is uniquely positioned with its delicate geological makeup. This renders it vulnerable to escalating environmental threats, primarily driven by global climate change-induced adversities. These climatic adversities not only disrupt the ecological balance but also create a space for multiple conflict frontiers. The primary objective of this research is to delve into the multifaceted conflicts that include competition for scarce resources, decision-making process, and vested interest of foreign powers that may arise from the climatic challenges especially flash floods, glacier lake outbursts, droughts, landslides, and other catastrophic disasters. The study aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of climatic-induced disaster events and their significant role in the origin of conflicts. Employing a qualitative research design using the tool of comparative analysis, the study investigates the conflicts triggered by these disasters of the past two decades. The study will draw insightful parallels between Nepal's unique situation and other global regions. I will spotlight regions like South Sudan, Rwanda, Syria, and, South and Southeast Asia where climate-induced factors, such as acute water and food shortages, have ignited community tensions and other resource-based conflicts in the historical review and analysis. Within Nepal's borders, I will undertake a detailed historical analysis of the specific cases due to climate change. The study aims to bridge the knowledge gap between climate change and conflict dynamics, offering actionable insights for holistic resource management, disaster risk mitigation, and proactive conflict prevention.

The Impacts of River Channel Blockages Caused by Sliding Embankment Collapses during Earthquakes

New Japanese regulations governing earth embankment construction were introduced after a debris flow in Atami City, Shizuoka Prefecture, caused significant damage. Slope failures block river channels during earthquakes, triggering flooding, inundation, and debris flows. Appropriate risk assessments are crucial for residential areas potentially impacted by earthen embankment landslides during seismic events. This study evaluates the methods used to assess the potential damage caused by such landslides and previous research on the harm caused by embankment failures during earthquakes. We derived predictive equations based on statistical analyses of historical dam landslides that triggered river channel blockages when residential earth embankments failed in the Nigawa Yurino area. The equations describe the morphologies of landslide dams in river channels. The results indicated that the predictive equations were reasonably accurate. We built and validated a two-dimensional model of landslide dam overtopping and breaching using experimental data on a gently sloping dam. We derived the outflow volumes associated with residential earth embankment failures when full reservoirs breached in the Nigawa Yurino area. Our findings suggest that the peak outflow volumes after such embankments breach are generally lower than those associated with dam landslides or deep-seated dam failures, but higher than those of glacial lake outburst floods.

Repeated failures of the giant Beshkiol Landslide and their impact on the long-term Naryn Basin floodings, Kyrgyz Tien Shan

Landslides are major hazards that lead to cataclysmic changes in regional physiography. Their consequences are particularly significant when they affect a river system, forming dammed-lake upstream that represents a high flood threat for the downstream region. The Naryn River is the largest river in the Kyrgyz Tien Shan and is of great economic importance. The Beshkiol Landslide, the largest one in Central Asia but of unknown age, has most likely blocked the Naryn River in the past during the Late Pleistocene, with evidence of thick lacustrine deposits as well as numerous paleo-shorelines preserved upstream. In this study, a detailed geomorphological and sedimentological analysis combined with luminescence and 14C dating provides a strong chronological framework to refine the dynamics between the Beshkiol landslides and dammed-lakes in the Naryn Basin. We propose that the Beshkiol Landslide was first triggered 51.9 ± 4.4 kyrs ago, with a 410 m-high dam that blocked the Naryn River. A first lake with a total volume of 121 ± 50 km3 lasted for >37.0 ± 5.1 kyrs, one of the longest landslide-dammed lake residence time ever documented in the world. Our sedimentological observations highlight a catastrophic lake outburst flood between 15.6 and 14.1 kyrs cal BP, likely related to a landslide dam breach. A short-lived phase of fluvial erosion impacted the whole Naryn Basin followed by a second landslide activation (280 m- high dam) and subsequent flooding by a second lake of 27 ± 10 km3. This second lake had a minimum residence time of 7.7 ± 1.3 kyrs before its final gradual drainage that was followed by a fluvial erosional phase still active today in the Naryn Basin. We also suggest that the distal unconsolidated part of the Beshkiol Landslide could be remobilized in the event of an earthquake and/or extreme rain episode, causing a potentially dam of the Naryn River, which would have strong regional economic impacts.

Safe Zone Area Prediction for Glacial Lake Outburst Floods

Safe Zone Area Prediction for Glacial Lake Outburst Floods

Tracking rapid and slow ice-dammed lake changes through optical satellites and local knowledge: a case study of Tystigbreen in Norway

Abstract The number of glacial lakes has grown globally concurrently with the retreat of glaciers in the last few decades, increasing the risk of potentially hazardous glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) and posing a threat to downstream communities. Norway has several known ice-dammed lakes that produce repeated GLOFs but as we show here, the existing GLOF database is incomplete and needs to be improved through continuous monitoring of glaciers and glacial lakes. This study examines the case of an ice cap in central Norway hosting at least four drainage-prone lakes. We reconstruct the sequence of lake drainage events through a combination of remote sensing, ground-truthing and citizen science while scrutinising the applicability of the PlanetScope imagery vs Sentinel-2 and Landsat-8 OLI products. As opposed to the Landsat imagery that often fails to resolve even the largest glacial lakes of Tystigbreen, both PlanetScope and Sentinel-2 are helpful in identifying previously unrecognised glacial lakes and undocumented drainage events. Our analysis suggests that a fusion of the two satellite products may be beneficial for automated tracking of glacial lake changes. We also demonstrate that local knowledge and systematic involvement of citizens in data collection have a potential to enrich GLOF databases.

Glacial Lake Changes and Risk Assessment in Rongxer Watershed of China–Nepal Economic Corridor

Glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) are one of the most severe disasters in alpine regions, releasing a large amount of water and sediment that can cause fatalities and economic loss as well as substantial damage to downstream infrastructures. The risk of GLOFs in the Himalayas is exacerbated by glacier retreat caused by global warming. Critical economic corridors, such as the Rongxer Watershed, are threatened by GLOFs, but the lack of risk assessment specific to the watershed hinders hazard prevention. In this study, we propose a novel model to evaluate the risk of GLOF using a combination of remote sensing observations, GIS, and hydrological models and apply this model to the GLOF risk assessment in the Rongxer Watershed. The results show that (1) the area of glacial lakes in the Rongxer Watershed increased by 31.19% from 11.35 km2 in 1990 to 14.89 km2 in 2020, and (2) 18 lakes were identified as potentially dangerous glacial lakes (PDGLs) that need to be assessed for the GLOF risk, and two of them were categorized as very high risk (Niangzongmajue and Tsho Rolpa). The proposed model was robust in a GLOF risk evaluation by historical GLOFs in the Himalayas. The glacial lake data and GLOF risk assessment model of this study have the potential to be widely used in research on the relationships between glacial lakes and climate change, as well as in disaster mitigation of GLOFs.

Tree-ring hydrological research in the Himalaya: State of the art and future directions

Recent developments in tree-ring research offer great potential for reconstructing past climate changes; determining the frequencies of natural hazards; and assessing the availability of freshwater resources over timescales that extend well into the pre-instrumental period. Here, we review the state of dendrochronological research in the Himalaya and outline future directions for tree-ring-based hydrological reconstructions in a region that has a pressing societal need to understand the causes and consequences of past, present and future changes in the hydrological cycle. We used ‘tree ring’ and ‘Himalaya’ as keywords to identify scholarly articles from the Web of Science that were published between 1994 and 2022. The resulting 173 publications were separated by their spatial coverage into the western, central and eastern Himalaya, as well as their scientific purpose (e.g. reconstructing growth-climate relationships, temperature, precipitation, streamflow, floods, droughts, etc.). Our analysis shows that dendrochronological research in the Himalaya primarily focused on understanding growth-climate relationships using annual tree-ring widths measurements obtained for coniferous species, and their application in climate reconstructions. Reconstructions of hydrological processes such as streamflows, and extremes such as glacial and landslide lake outburst floods, have received less attention. Recent advances in dendrochronology, including blue intensity (BI), quantitative wood anatomy (QWA), and tree-ring stable isotopes (TRSI) should be combined to improve the resolution and accuracy of hydrological reconstructions in all parts of the Himalaya. Such studies may allow us to better understand the effects of climate change and the Himalayan water resources for its lowland surroundings. They may also facilitate decision-making processes for mitigating the impacts of climate change on natural hazards, and for better managing water resources in the region.

Multitemporal landslide inventory and susceptibility map for the Arun River Basin, Nepal

AbstractThe transboundary Arun River Basin (ARB) spreads across Nepal and Tibet. Nearly 95% of the basin lies in Tibet through which the Pumqu River flows, forming the Arun River once it enters Nepal. The ARB has five large hydropower projects undergoing construction or planned for the future. Rainfall and earthquake‐induced landslides, landslide‐dammed lakes and landslide‐induced glacial lake outburst floods pose major risks to smooth operation of these projects. To safeguard upcoming hydropower projects, areas susceptible to landslides in the ARB must be identified. We used high‐resolution satellite imagery and open‐source tools to generate a multitemporal landslide inventory for the basin. The rigorously quality‐controlled inventory represents a yearly record of landslides from 2011 to 2020. A data‐driven approach was used to map areas susceptible to landslides within the ARB. The multitemporal landslide inventory combined with other readily available Earth observation‐based variables was used to create a landslide susceptibility map. The susceptibility analysis provides a valuable initial estimate of where landslides are likely to initiate. These landslide products could form the basis of more comprehensive local studies to inform hydropower project development.

Infilled lakes (Pampas) of the Cordillera Blanca, Peru: Inventory, sediment storage, and paleo outbursts

Infilled lakes are a prevalent geomorphic feature in the intricate high mountain landscape of the Cordillera Blanca, Peru. Despite their apparent geomorphic, hydrological, and ecological importance, a systematic inventory of these areas has been lacking. This study presents an inventory of infilled lakes in the Cordillera Blanca. A total of 962 infilled lake polygons have been manually mapped, covering an area of nearly 90 km2 (the area of individual mapped polygons ranges from 0.001 km2 to 1.760 km2), more than double the area of existing lakes (40 km2) and the majority of flat areas (62% of areas with slope ≤5°). The study reveals that infilled bedrock-dammed lakes are the most common type (42%), while moraine-dammed lakes account for the majority of the infilled lake area (52%) and sediment volume (52% to 57%). Considering high uncertainty of infilled basins’ morphology, the estimated sediment volume of infilled lakes ranges between 0.9 km3 and 2.3 km3 (compared to 0.79 km3 to 1.15 km3 of water stored in existing lakes). The case study of Lake Aguascocha catchment reveals a mean sediment yield of 0.64 to 1.63∙106 m3∙km−2 during the past 10.7 ± 0.3 ka, that is, a mean annual sediment yield of 58.5 to 156.4 m3∙km−2∙yr−1. Furthermore, 65 locations where preserved geomorphic evidence indicates possible outburst floods in the past are identified. These areas are particularly important for understanding patterns of lake outburst occurrence on longer timescales than traditionally considered in lake outburst flood hazard studies. The dataset presented in this study is intended to serve as a basis for identifying sites suitable for further site-specific paleo-geographical, sedimentological, geochronological as well as broader mountain landscape evolution studies.

A glacial lake outburst floods hazard assessment in the Patagonian Andes combining inventory data and case-studies

We present a glacial-related lake inventory for a region spanning 41.5° - 47° S in Patagonian Andes, where information on past glacier lake outburst floods (GLOF's) has hitherto remained significantly underreported. Analyzing remotely sensed images, we obtained data on 702 glacial-related lakes. Through detailed geomorphic assessments and manual supervision, we revised current inventories and added 35 GLOFs triggered from moraine/bedrock dammed lakes failures. The regional GLOF inventory presented contains information on 71 historical failures of moraine/bedrock dammed glacial lakes. From this database we analyzed outburst timing and managed to constrain 37 events occurrences within a period of 1 year. Around 40 % of them have occurred since the early 2000's, most of them originating from lakes probably formed as a delayed response to the glacial retreat imposed by the end of the Little Ice Age. On the other hand, we analyzed meteorological conditions for a sub-set of 10 events constrained within a 10-days period, finding a strong link between atmospheric rivers, cut-off lows impacting the southern Andes, and GLOFs. Only one case is likely to have been triggered by a Mw 4.9 earthquake. Based on topographic potential for avalanching, we estimated GLOF hazard potential, recognizing at least 3 subregions with high hazard, which moreover can be highly susceptible to climate conditions that regionally affect GLOF occurrence.

Reconstructing glacial lake outburst floods in the Poiqu River basin, central Himalaya

The Poiqu River basin in central Himalaya is a transboundary basin between China and Nepal that has experienced rapid glacier ice loss and glacial lake growth, some of which have drained in catastrophic glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs). Here, we focus on the outbursts of two glacial lakes in this basin, Gongbatongsha Co in 2016, and Poiqu No.1 in 2002, and integrate multiple data sources and approaches to improve our understanding of past GLOFs and project the magnitude of potential future GLOFs. We identify their potential triggers and assess downstream damage by combining remote sensing observations and field surveys. We find that after the outbursts, Gongbatongsha Co shrank by 0.14 ± 0.003 km2 (∼91 %) in 2016 and almost disappeared, and Poiqu No.1 shrank by 0.05 ± 0.001 km2 (∼80 %) in 2002 but then expanded by 0.10 ± 0.002 km2 (∼670 %) by 2022. Our study identifies ice avalanches from the parent glaciers as the dominant trigger of the two GLOF events, and clarifies that the 2002 GLOF event stemmed from Poiqu No.1 instead of the reported Jialong Co. We also reconstructed the flow depths, velocities, and inundation areas using the hydrodynamic models HEC-RAS and FLO-2D. For Gongbatongsha Co, the models suggest that the discharge peaked at ∼550 m3s−1 about 15 min after the outburst, and the flood reached the settlement of Zhangmu with a peak flow of ∼1600 m3s−1 about 8.5 h later. The peak discharge during the GLOF from Poiqu No.1 was ∼2700 m3s−1. The flood reached the town of Nyalam 1.3 h later, with a peak discharge of ∼1100 m3s−1. The simulation of a future GLOF from Poiqu No.1 shows significant potential impacts to Nyalam town and other downstream communities due to the high flow depth. A large GLOF scenario for Poiqu No.1 would result in a peak discharge of more than 2500 m3s−1, with the flood wave reaching Nyalam in less than 40 min. We show that very high-resolution digital elevation models such as obtained from uncrewed aerial vehicles perform better in flood simulation. Our approach can be applied to potentially dangerous glacial lakes in other high mountain areas.

Transboundary hazard and downstream impact of glacial lakes in Hindu-Kush Karakoram Himalayas

Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) can generate catastrophic flash floods when the damming structure is breached or overtopped. Some of these glacial lakes are located in transboundary regions where floods originating from the lake in one country could inundate a neighboring country, devastating the population and infrastructure of both nations and influencing socio-political relationships. Therefore, assessing the lakes' hazard is crucial. This study investigates transboundary glacial lakes, considering their GLOF hazard, including potential mass movement intrusion, moraine's stability, upstream and downstream process cascades, downstream flood extents, and the exposure and vulnerability of the downstream infrastructure and affected population. GLOF exposure assessments were carried out to identify exposed buildings, bridges, and hydropower systems in transboundary regions. China currently has the highest number of transboundary lakes, with most of them potentially impacting India and Nepal. Most of the transboundary lakes in China, and many in India and Nepal, are susceptible to mass movements. Among the 230 transboundary glacial lakes in the Hindu Kush Karakoram Himalaya, 55 lakes can potentially impact other glacial lakes along their flow path, creating a cascade of events. Five transboundary lakes could potentially impact over 1000 buildings, and 16 lakes could impact over 500 buildings. A total of 35 lakes can impact at least one hydropower station along their flow path, and 4 lakes can impact two hydropower stations. This research emphasizes the critical importance of conducting comprehensive risk analyses of GLOFs in transboundary regions to inform policy-makers. It calls for investing in broad-scale assessments and data-driven decision-making for mitigating and adapting to GLOF risks effectively. Finally, by raising awareness among policy-makers, the study aims to drive actions that safeguard communities and infrastructure vulnerable to GLOF.

Sustainable flood hazard mapping with GLOF: A Google Earth Engine approach

This study aims to evaluate the efficacy of Google Earth Engine (GEE) in mapping floods and their aftermath, focusing on the recent event caused by cloud burst rainfall and glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) of Lhonak glacier lake in the Teesta River basin, North Sikkim. The objective is to utilize GEE, coupled with Sentinel-1 Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data and Landsat 9 imagery, for precise remote sensing analysis, flood mapping, and Land Use and Land Cover (LULC) classification. The study employs a comprehensive methodology within the GEE platform, involving the acquisition and preprocessing of Sentinel-1 SAR data to create pre- and post-flood images. The difference between these images is calculated to generate flood maps at five-day intervals, providing a temporal evolution of the flood extent. Additionally, LULC mapping is conducted using Landsat 9 data, contributing to an understanding of pre-flood landscape characteristics. The results and discussion reveal significant impacts on various LULC types, with barren rocks, dense and medium forests, settlements, and agricultural lands experiencing notable effects. This research not only enhances our understanding of GLOFs but also serves as a critical tool for informing disaster management strategies, emphasizing the importance of accurate hazard assessment and the need for holistic approaches to mitigate the cascading effects of such events.

The Lasting Legacy of Megaflood Boulder Deposition in Mountain Rivers

AbstractInfrequent, large‐magnitude discharge (>106 m3/s) outburst floods—megafloods—can play a major role in landscape evolution. Prehistoric glacial lake outburst megafloods transported and deposited large boulders (≥4 m), yet few studies consider their potential lasting impact on river processes and form. We use a numerical model, constrained by observed boulder size distributions, to investigate the fluvial response to boulder deposition by megaflooding in the Yarlung‐Siang River, eastern Himalaya. Results show that boulder deposition changes local channel steepness (ksn) up to ∼180% compared to simulations without boulder bars, introducing >100 meter‐scale knickpoints to the channel that can be sustained for >20 kyr. Simulations demonstrate that deposition of boulders in a single megaflood can have a greater influence on ksn than another common source of fluvial boulders: incision‐rate‐dependent delivery of boulders from hillslopes. Through widespread boulder deposition, megafloods leave a lasting legacy of channel disequilibrium that compounds over multiple floods and persists for millennia.

Enhanced glacial lake activity threatens numerous communities and infrastructure in the Third Pole

Glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) are among the most severe cryospheric hazards in the Third Pole, encompassing the Tibetan Plateau and surrounding Himalayas, Hindu Kush, and Tianshan Mountains. Recent studies on glacial lake changes and GLOF characteristics and risks in this region have shown scattered and insufficiently detailed features. Here, we conduct an appraisal of the GLOF risks by combining high-resolution satellite images, case-by-case high-precision GLOF modeling, and detailed downstream exposure data. The glacial lake changes from 2018 to 2022 in the region were primarily driven by the accelerated expansion of proglacial lakes. The GLOF frequency has exhibited a significant increasing trend since 1980, with intensified activity in Southeastern Tibet and the China-Nepal border area over the past decade. Approximately 6,353 km2 of land could be at risk from potential GLOFs, posing threats to 55,808 buildings, 105 hydropower projects, 194 km2 of farmland, 5,005 km of roads, and 4,038 bridges. This study directly responds to the need for local disaster prevention and mitigation strategies, highlighting the urgent requirement of reducing GLOF threats in the Third Pole and the importance of regional cooperation.

Glacial lakes of Sikkim Himalaya: their dynamics, trends, and likely fate—a timeseries analysis through cloud-based geocomputing, and machine learning

In the background of ongoing climate change, it is important to monitor the spatial and temporal changes of glacial lakes (GLs) since they influence snowmelt runoff, stream discharge, water resources, and glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF). However, accurate identification and mapping of GLs in the background of snow-clad mountains through visual interpretation of satellite data is a tedious and challenging assignment when multiyear time-series analysis is considered. To overcome this challenge, automated extraction of GLs in satellite images has been carried out in this study with the help of machine learning (ML). The novelty of this study is identification and tracking of GLs over three decades using ML and geospatial analysis using pixel-based image classification. For this, Random Forest Classifier (RFC) and Artificial Neural Network (ANN) were employed. The methodology is demonstrated here for the identification and mapping of GLs in the Sikkim Himalaya from 1987 to 2020 and for forecasting the possible fate of these GLs through time-series modelling. The geospatial time-series analysis using Google Earth Engine, ML classifiers, and GIS framework, has captured the dynamics of GLs in Sikkim and has revealed the spatial and temporal patterns in GLs’ dimensions as well as GLOF risk.

A conceptual model for glacial lake bathymetric distribution

Abstract. The formation and expansion of glacial lakes worldwide due to global warming and glacier retreat have been well documented in the past few decades. Thousands of glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) originating from moraine-dammed and ice-dammed lakes were reported, causing devastating impacts on downstream lives and properties. Detailed glacial lake bathymetry surveys are essential for accurate GLOF simulation and risk assessment. However, these bathymetry surveys are still scarce as glacial lakes located in remote and high-altitude environments hamper a comprehensive investigation. We developed a conceptual model for glacial lake bathymetric distribution using a semi-automatic simulation procedure. The basic idea is that the statistical glacial lake volume–area curves conform to a power-law relationship indicating that the idealized geometric shape of the glacial lake basin should be hemispheres or cones. First, by reviewing the evolution of various types of glacial lakes, we identified nine standard conceptual models to describe the shapes of lake basins. Second, we defined a general conceptual model to depict the continuum transitions between different standard conceptual models for those specific glacial lakes that lie between two standard conceptual models. Third, we nested the optimal conceptual model in the actual glacial lake basin to construct the water depth contours and interpolate the glacial lake bathymetric distribution. We applied the conceptual model to simulate six typical glacial lakes in the Third Pole with in situ bathymetric surveys to verify the algorithm's applicability. The results show a high consistency in the point-to-point comparisons of the measured and simulated water depths, with a total volume difference of approximately ±10 %. The conceptual model has significant implications for understanding glacial lake evolution and modeling GLOFs in the future.

Outburst of the Spartakovskoye Glacier-Dammed Lake and Changes of the Outlet Glacier of the Semyonov–Tyan-Shansky Ice Cap, Severnaya Zemlya in 2021

Outburst of the Spartakovskoye Glacier-Dammed Lake and Changes of the Outlet Glacier of the Semyonov–Tyan-Shansky Ice Cap, Severnaya Zemlya in 2021