Outbound Travel Research Articles

UNWTO World Tourism Barometer and Statistical Annex, October 2020

International travel plunges 70% in the first eight months of 2020 International tourist arrivals (overnight visitors) declined 70% in the first eight months of 2020 over the same period of last year, amid global travel restrictions including many borders fully closed, to contain the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. International arrivals plunged 81% in July and 79% in August, traditionally the two busiest months of the year and the peak of the Northern Hemisphere summer season. Despite such large declines, this represents a relative improvement over the 90% or greater decreases of the previous months, as some destinations started to reopen to international tourism, mostly in the European Union. The decline in January-August 2020 represents 700 million fewer international tourist arrivals compared to the same period in 2019, and translates into a loss of US$ 730 billion in export revenues from international tourism, more than 8 times the loss in 2009 under the impact of the global economic crisis. Asia and the Pacific, the first region to suffer the impact of the pandemic, saw a 79% decrease in arrivals in January-August 2020. Africa and the Middle East both recorded a 69% drop this eight-month period, while Europe saw a 68% decline and the Americas 65%. Data on international tourism expenditure continues to reflect very weak demand for outbound travel, though in several large markets such as the United States, Germany and Italy there is a small uptick in spending in the months of July and August. Based on latest trends, a 75% decrease in international arrivals is estimated for the month of September and a drop of close to 70% for the whole of 2020. While demand for international travel remains subdued, domestic tourism is strengthening recovery in several large markets such as China and Russia. The UNWTO Confidence Index continues at record lows. Most UNWTO Panel Experts expect a rebound in international tourism by the third quarter of 2021 and a return to pre-pandemic 2019 levels not before 2023. Experts consider travel restrictions as the main barrier weighing on the recovery of international tourism, along with slow virus containment and low consumer confidence.

The effects of consumer animosity on demand for sharing-based accommodations: Evidence from Airbnb

Online home-sharing platforms, such as Airbnb, have recently become increasingly popular among travelers, including outbound travelers. This study investigates the impact of consumer animosity, a determinant of consumers' purchase decisions in international businesses, on outbound travelers' demand for sharing-based accommodations. In particular, we examine the differential effects of two types of consumer animosity: economic animosity and war animosity. Utilizing a unique geopolitical environment where Chinese consumers bear economic animosity (towards South Korea) and war animosity (towards Japan), we collected a comprehensive panel data set including listings and reviews from Airbnb, together with a list of events inducing animosity. Utilizing the events as exogenous shocks, we applied difference-in-differences (DID) approach to infer the causal effect of consumer animosity on Chinese outbound travelers' demand for sharing-based accommodations. Contrary to the extant studies which mostly show a negative effect of consumer animosity on purchase intentions, we find that consumer's economic animosity is likely to have a positive effect on outbound travelers' decisions in the context of sharing-based accommodations. However, war animosity has limited effect on outbound travelers' decisions. Further, such effects of consumer animosity are negatively moderated by the intensity level of events inducing animosity. As the intensity increases, both war animosity and economic animosity will ultimately have a negative effect on consumers' Airbnb booking decisions. This study contributes to the fast-growing literature focusing on various factors affecting consumers' booking decisions on online home-sharing platforms. Our results also provide important practical implications for online home-sharing platforms.

Potential Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic through Changes in Outbound Tourism on Water Demand: The Case of Liège (Belgium)

The COVID-19 pandemic has led to many countries closing their borders, and numerous people spending their holidays at home instead of traveling abroad. This sudden reduction in travel activities, and other ‘new normals’, might have influenced people’s water usage. Hence, using Liège as a case study, this study aims to address the potential effect of outbound tourism on water consumption and how the current situation might affect the total water demand. Statistical models were developed and validated using the total daily volume of 23 municipalities in the Liège conurbation, the monthly total number of outbound trips, and other meteorological data. Results suggest significantly lower water demand in the months with high numbers of outbound travel activities. Though the projected risk of increased water needs due to fewer people traveling is moderate, the threat becomes much higher during long periods of dry and hot weather.

China’s ‘Coercive Tourism’: motives, methods and consequences

Abstract This article considers 13 instances in which China has used tourist sanctions as an instrument of its foreign policy. It finds that the effectiveness of those sanctions has been limited by target state considerations including the ability to diversify source markets, constraining effects of international alliances, and national security, sovereignty and territorial considerations, matters which are also of importance to China. The article highlights the ways in which the Chinese government regulates outbound travelers through directives, travel advisories, granting or denying countries Approved Destination Status and disseminating information through the state-owned media and indicates that social actors such as consumers and netizens play a role as well. It also investigates the goals of China’s actions which usually have to do with protecting core interests broadly defined. Among the cases covered are ones involving Japan, the Philippines, Turkey, Taiwan, South Korea, the Vatican, Palau, North Korea, Australia, the United States, Canada, New Zealand and Sweden. Not covered are Belt and Road countries with whom China is practicing positive forms of tourist statecraft which may be more effective.

Changing travel patterns in China during the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic

Understanding changes in human mobility in the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic is crucial for assessing the impacts of travel restrictions designed to reduce disease spread. Here, relying on data from mainland China, we investigate the spatio-temporal characteristics of human mobility between 1st January and 1st March 2020, and discuss their public health implications. An outbound travel surge from Wuhan before travel restrictions were implemented was also observed across China due to the Lunar New Year, indicating that holiday travel may have played a larger role in mobility changes compared to impending travel restrictions. Holiday travel also shifted healthcare pressure related to COVID-19 towards locations with lower healthcare capacity. Network analyses showed no sign of major changes in the transportation network after Lunar New Year. Changes observed were temporary and did not lead to structural reorganisation of the transportation network during the study period.

Tourist spending and productivity of economy in OECD countries – research on perspectives of sustainable tourism

Tourism represents the sector of services which is developing the most considerably and dynamically. However, its development is influenced by: trends in globalization, process of demographic aging, economic parameters, geographical conditions of a country, consumers, and other aspects. The following aspects contribute to its development: new destinations, markets, innovative activities in service sector, and also technological development. Tourism plays a significant economic role in a process of sustainable regional development, where it helps to develop low-growth regions. Monitoring and quantification of tourism outputs is a very complicated process. There also absents a quality database, which complicates a quantification of sector’s efficiency and a creation of national and international benchmarking indicators that inform of sustainable tourism level. These aspects demand a realization of multi-dimensional analyses, which would examine causal relations between tourism factors and economic parameters of a country. The study’s motivation was driven by all of the above-mentioned facts. It aims at researching an influence of tourism spending on OECD countries’ productivity. Consequently, it evaluates their potential of the sector’s sustainability. Multiple analytical procedures, which were determined by database availability, were performed in order to achieve the, research aim. The following analyses were performed besides the descriptive statistics: variance analysis of researched variables between individual years and OECD countries, context analysis, regression and cluster analyses. There were analysed 5 variables that characterize individual types of tourist spending: Business Tourism Spending, Domestic Tourism Spending, Leisure Tourism Spending, Outbound Travel & Tourism Expenditure , Visitor Exports (Foreign Spending) and one variable that characterizes productivity during 2010 – 2018 for all OECD countries. Spending variables were standardized per 1,000 inhabitants of a given country and productivity was measured by GDP per capita, while both groups of variables were provided in USD (fair value). The analyses’ results provided interesting findings. The regression models’ outputs confirmed an influence of tourist spending on a country’s productivity. All variables that indicate spending are significant. The cluster analysis’s results allowed a selection of countries into four groups. There is two huge clusters and other two clusters represent only one countries in specific cluster. Luxemburg and Iceland give us different values than countries in other clusters. The countries with higher rank are as follows: Australia (AUS), Austria (AUT), Belgium (BEL), Canada (CAN), Germany (DEU), Denmark (DNK), Finland (FIN), France (FRA), Unites Kingdom (GBR), Switzerland (CHE), Ireland (IRL), Italy (ITA), Netherland (NLD), Norway (NOR), New Zealand (NZL), Sweden (SWE), United States (USA), Island (ISL) and Luxembourg (LUX). On the other hand, the countries with lower rank are as follows: Czech Republic CZE, Spain (ESP), Estonia (EST), Greece (GRC), Hungary (HUN), Chile (CHL), Israel (ISR), Japan (JPN), Korea (KOR), Lithuania (LTU), Latvia (LVA), Mexico (MEX), Poland (POL), Portugal (PRT), Slovak Republic (SVK), Slovenia (SVN) and Turkey (TUR). These findings provide a space for a deeper research of effect between determinants of tourism development and economic indicators, while they enable to reveal a space for a growth of countries’ productivity that would provide a sustainability in tourism sector.

Unraveling The Mechanisms Behind Chinese Outbound Tourist Shopping: A Social Practice Perspective

Chinese outbound tourist shopping is a prominent phenomenon in many destinations, but the mechanisms behind it have rarely been addressed. This study draws upon social practice theory to examine why shopping dominates the tourist experience of Chinese travelers in Australia. Thirty-two semistructured interviews were conducted to identify key social and consumption practices that lead to the dominance of Chinese outbound tourist shopping. The study argues that the shopping practices of Chinese tourists result from a combination of Chinese consumerism and guanxi maintenance under the condition of outbound travel. This study contributes to a holistic understanding of Chinese outbound tourist shopping by revealing how it is embedded in broader consumption practices in China.

Determinations of Tourist Outbound Travel Intention in Sarawak: Does Gender Really Matter?

Determinations of Tourist Outbound Travel Intention in Sarawak: Does Gender Really Matter?

아웃바운드 여행업의 마케팅믹스가 브랜드 이미지와 고객만족 및 충성도에 미치는 영향

아웃바운드 여행업의 마케팅믹스가 브랜드 이미지와 고객만족 및 충성도에 미치는 영향

0228 The Impact of Westward Travel Across 9 Time Zones on Sleep Behaviors of Female Collegiate Athletes

Abstract Introduction Jet lag can significantly impact an athlete’s health and performance. However, the effect of ultra long-haul travel (> 12h flying time) westward across nine time zones on the sleep of female collegiate athletes is limited. We therefore studied the sleep behavior of NCAA Division I female volleyball players on an exhibition tour to China. Methods For this observational study, eleven females were recruited from a NCAA Division I Volleyball team. During the Tour, sleep behavior was monitored using wrist actigraphy (Actiwatch Spectrum, Phillips) before (5 days) outbound travel (PRE-FLIGHT), during air travel to (1) & from (2) China (FLIGHT-DAY 1 & 2) and during the athletes’ tour while in China (TOUR-DAY 1–8). Athletes were instructed to wear the actigraphs at all times, except during competition. Standard parameters were collected from the actigraph including sleep durations and sleep efficiency and expressed as mean ± sd. Results Sleep duration and sleep efficiency were similar for PRE-FLIGHT days (~8.3 hrs ± 1.5, 90.6 ± 3.2%). Sleep duration and efficiency were significantly lower on FLIGHT-DAY 1 & 2 compared to TOUR-DAY and PRE-FLIGHT, but were not significantly different from each other (~5.2 ± 2.4h, 80.5 ± 8.8%). Sleep duration during TOUR-DAY 1–7 followed a quadratic relationship, peaking on TOUR-DAY 1 and reaching a nadir on TOUR-DAY 5, before increasing again through TOUR-DAY 7 (p<0.05). Sleep duration on TOUR-DAY 8 (~5.9 ± 0.9 h) was significantly lower than PRE-FLIGHT and TOUR-DAY 1,2,6 & 7. Conclusion During travel female collegiate volleyball players showed sleep disturbance. Implementation of sleep interventions for jet lag are warranted for athletes traveling across multiple time zones. Support PAC-12 Student-Athlete Health and Wellbeing Initiative, Grant #1554240

The Impact of Accommodation Taxes on Outbound Travel Demand from the United Kingdom to European Destinations

Despite the progressive introduction of accommodation taxes in many European cities, there is no consensus in the literature as to whether they have positive or negative effects. This may be related to the lack of estimates of the elasticity of visitor demand to accommodation taxes. To fill this gap, we carry out two panel-data regressions using a data set of airline travelers from UK cities to Spanish, French, and Italian destinations between 2012 and 2018. The results from the two-stage least squares regressions indicate that UK international travelers are indeed sensitive to hotel taxes. However, the impact of these taxes differs between peak and off-peak periods and across destination countries, with French destinations showing the most negative effect on visitor flows. The analysis of tax elasticities at a destination level also reveals the lack of a significant negative impact on visitor flows to major cities like Venice or Barcelona.

How do Chinese travelers experience the Arctic? Insights from a hedonic and eudaimonic perspective

ABSTRACTThis study explores the tourism experience of Chinese independent travelers in the Arctic region from the perspective of hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. We examine 12 “informant, influential and interactive” online travel blogs on Qyer.com, the biggest virtual community for Chinese outbound independent travelers. A three-level manual coding process of qualitative data has shown that hedonic Arctic experiences include “gazing at otherness”, “encounter and interaction”, “immersion in the local community”, “bodily feelings”, and “positive affects”. From eudaimonic perspective, visitors “experience challenges” (environmental, physical, and mental) at first, but they learn to “build capacities” and respond to these challenges. After conquering self-limits, Chinese travelers go through “revitalization of the body”, obtain “high spirits” and achieve “enrichment of the mind”. Some of the experiential outcomes can be explained by traditional Chinese value orientations such as self-cultivation, collectivism, and human–environment harmony. The authors recommend Arctic tourism to be positioned as a highly valued, exotic, and extraordinary destination for independent travelers who aim to enrich their mind and soul above material pleasure.

THE TOURIST MARKET IN UKRAINE: TRENDS AND HIDDEN OPPORTUNITIES

Introduction. The analysis of the tourist market of Ukraine is carried out and on its basis prospects of development are given in article. According to the World Economic Forum, over the past two years, Ukraine has had the fastest growth rate in the sub-region, having risen by 10 places and ranked 78th in the world in the Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index. Instead, the World Tourism and Travel Council's growth forecast for the domestic tourism industry over the coming years is rather insignificant and driven primarily by a small amount of investment in the sector. The purpose of the article is to highlight the current trends and hidden opportunities for the Ukrainian tourist market development in the conditions of unstable socio-economic situation in Ukraine and in the world, as well as to identify perspectives of this phenomenon. Research methodology. The study uses theoretical, methodological and systematic methods of source base analysis, descriptive and structural analysis to evaluate the state of the tourism market in Ukraine and its development prospects. Results of this study: It was found that the number of Ukrainian tourists in European resorts has increased since the visa-free regime. With the appearance of low-cost companies in Ukraine, transport infrastructure has improved, regional airports have begun to develop and new routes have been opened, which has significantly affected the number of tourists. The increase in the passenger traffic of the major Ukrainian airports is being observed. The project "Tourist Clusters 300+" was created, which according to the initiators of the project will bring to the country up to 1.5 billion dollars investment. Conclusions. In general, Ukraine has become more accessible to foreigners and domestic tourists alike. Among the priority areas for tourism development in Ukraine are the domestic tourism development, promotion of the country abroad, infrastructure and education in the tourism sector. Keywords: tourist market, inbound travel, outbound travel, low cost airlines, tourist clusters.

A Case of African Tick-Bite Fever in a Returning Traveler from Southern Africa

African tick-bite fever (ATBF), caused by Rickettsia africae, is the second most frequent cause of fever after malaria in travelers returning from Southern Africa. As the Korean outbound travelers are increasing every year, tick-borne rickettsial diseases as a cause of febrile illness are likely to increase. We describe a febrile Korean returning traveler who showed two eschars after visiting the rural field in Manzini, Swaziland. We performed nested polymerase chain reaction using the eschar and diagnosed the patient with ATBF. He was treated with oral doxycycline for 7 days, and recovered without any complications. We believe that the present case is the first ATBF case diagnosed in a Korean traveler.

Estimation of the Size of Dengue and Zika Infection Among Korean Travelers to Southeast Asia and Latin America, 2016-2017.

ObjectivesTo estimate the number and risk of imported infections resulting from people visiting Asian and Latin American countries.MethodsThe dataset of visitors to 5 Asian countries with dengue were analyzed for 2016 and 2017, and in the Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam, imported cases of zika virus infection were also reported. For zika virus, a single imported case was reported from Brazil in 2016, and 2 imported cases reported from the Maldives in 2017. To understand the transmissibility in 5 Southeast Asian countries, the estimate of the force of infection, i.e., the hazard of infection per year and the average duration of travel has been extracted. Outbound travel numbers were retrieved from the World Tourism Organization, including business travelers.ResultsThe incidence of imported dengue in 2016 was estimated at 7.46, 15.00, 2.14, 4.73 and 2.40 per 100,000 travelers visiting Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia and Vietnam, respectively. Similarly, 2.55, 1.65, 1.53, 1.86 and 1.70 per 100,000 travelers in 2017, respectively. It was estimated that there were 60.1 infections (range: from 16.8 to 150.7 infections) with zika virus in Brazil, 2016, and 345.6 infections (range: from 85.4 to 425.5 infections) with zika virus in the Maldives, 2017.ConclusionThis study emphasizes that dengue and zika virus infections are mild in their nature, and a substantial number of infections may go undetected. An appropriate risk assessment of zika virus infection must use the estimated total size of infections.

Effects of perceived constraints and negotiation on learned helplessness: A study of Chinese senior outbound tourists

Abstract Learned helplessness is an important psychological construct that may influence senior tourists' subjective wellbeing while travelling. Employing a mixed-method approach and a multi-sample design, this study examines how Chinese senior outbound tourists’ perceived travel constraints and negotiation efforts affect learned helplessness in outbound travel. We identified four perceived constraints (perceived incapability, lack of suitable travel agencies and services, lack of information and personal support, and complex travel decision-making) and three negotiation strategies (seeking family support, physical/health preparation, and learning). Multiple regression analyses showed that among the four perceived constraints, only perceived incapability increased learned helplessness significantly; conversely, negotiation in general reduced learned helplessness. However, not as expected, negotiation was not founded to be a moderator between perceived constraints and learned helplessness. Theoretical and practical implications are also discussed.

Who Are Domestic Travel Agency Users and Who Buys Full Package Trips? A Study of Korean Outbound Travelers

Who Are Domestic Travel Agency Users and Who Buys Full Package Trips? A Study of Korean Outbound Travelers

Holiday Travel Behaviour and Correlated CO2 Emissions—Modelling Trend and Future Scenarios for Austrian Tourists

The footprint of tourism through travel is contributing significantly to the accumulation of human-made CO2. Due to different options in transportation, resulting emissions depend strongly on the choices of individuals on how to travel. In Austria, land travel is the main mode of transportation, though air travel has shown a significant increase during the last decades. We present a model to estimate past and future emission trends of land and air travel for domestic (inbound) and international (outbound) travel destinations. For this, we use a combination of two software models, a social-economic individual-based model to simulate the decision processes of holiday travel and an emission calculation model to estimate single travel-based CO2 emissions. Our model is supported by data (reference year 2016) on tourism demand, holiday destinations, household wealth and emissions of different transportation modes. Our model evaluation successfully reproduced historical data of travel demand in the period 2003–2019 and explores several future trends of (a) business-as-usual, (b) green transition and (c) aviation preference increase. We calculated a current CO2 footprint of 5.8 million tonnes in 2019, which could increase to 7.3 million tonnes by 2030 if the current trend continues. A necessary decrease of transportation emissions is only possible when reducing air travel. In case of a green transition towards more land travel, total emissions could be kept constant compared to current emission levels. However, an overall reduction of holiday travel related CO2 below 3.5 million tonnes has not been observed even under the best circumstances due to projected increases in the total population and increases in wealth.

Being a vegetarian traveller is not easy

PurposePrevious empirical studies have not documented the link between vegetarians’ dietary constraints and travel intentions. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to utilise a mixed-methods approach to examine the interrelationships of this group’s travel motivations, travel constraints, constraint negotiations and behavioural intentions, with special reference to how dietary constraints deter its members from travelling, and its extent.Design/methodology/approachAn online questionnaire was administered to outbound Taiwanese vegetarian travellers (n=418), and this was followed by in-depth, semi-structured interviews (n=9) to complement the quantitative data.FindingsThe results indicated that vegetarians’ dietary constraints significantly deterred them from travelling in certain circumstances: notably, in the company of non-vegetarians. Nevertheless, it was found that some vegetarians efficiently negotiated their constraints and persisted in travelling, in some cases, by compromising their dietary preferences.Practical implicationsTravel agents and planners should explore more strategies to meet the needs of vegetarian travellers to increase this group’s travel satisfaction.Originality/valueThis study established the first theoretical model explaining the relationships among vegetarians’ travel motivations, dietary constraints, constraint negotiations and travel intentions.

Destination Authenticity as a Trigger of Tourists’ Online Engagement on Social Media

This study empirically investigates the dimensions of destination authenticity from the perspectives of outbound travelers from the United States. East Asian countries have invited Western tourists to their destinations by offering authentic, unique experiences of local life and culture. In response to this trend, this study examines the influences of destination authenticity on international tourists’ place attachment, destination satisfaction, and engagement on social media. Based on the literature, three facets of destination authenticity are investigated: conformity, realness, and transformation. The empirical findings indicate that conformity and realness lead tourists not only to be emotionally attached to a destination but, in social media, to also click the “like” buttons and leave comments on the postings about destinations. With the empirical results, theoretical and managerial implications are discussed with an emphasis on tourists’ perception of destination authenticity and online behaviors.