Orthodox Church Research Articles

Deconstructing Theology or Prophetic Theology? A Comparative Protestant and Eastern Orthodox Christian Perspective

The purpose of this paper is twofold: first, to depict, in its main elements, the conception of a Protestant “deconstructive theology”, and, secondly, to present the prophetic aspect of Eastern Christian Orthodox theology in comparison with it. According to the method of “deconstructive theology” as a method, the Scripture must be dismantled in order to be fresh and new. In the Orthodox understanding, the work of theology is understood to be, in the first place, a personal relationship with and experience of God, both from a mystical and sacramental perspective, and, through this, an actualisation of the work and message of God’s Revelation, making it present in the context of each historical and cultural circumstance. As will be presented below, this achievement could be completed only within the Church. Thus, Orthodox theology must deliver the eternal word and life of Jesus Christ, addressed to the contemporary context, in order to guide the Church and the Faithful toward the Kingdom of God. It is hoped that this comparative endeavour may be beneficial for general understanding between Christians, through placing in conversation two different perspectives regarding theology, which seldom encounter one another.

Homophobia in Greece

Abstract: Introduction: Apart from a few studies with limited sample sizes, we have little data on attitudes toward lesbian and gay (LG) people in Greece. Methods: This study examines this topic in 949 heterosexual Greek participants. Based on previous research in cultural contexts other than Greece, we hypothesized that four demographics (gender, age, education, area of residence) and religious and political orientation predict a substantial amount of variance in homophobia (i.e., anti-LG attitudes). Results: We verified all observed variables except area of residence as significant predictors. Regarding the “intergroup contact hypothesis,” we distinguished the direct effects of the predictor variables from indirect effects mediated by contact with lesbians and gay men. All variables except area of residence showed a direct effect and, except for education, also an indirect effect on homophobia. The strongest effects were found for religious and political orientation, followed by gender. Highly religious, right-wing oriented, and male participants reported the highest levels of homophobia, partially mediated by their low level of contact with LG people. Discussion/Conclusion: The results confirm and further explain the detrimental role the Greek Orthodox Church, right-wing political parties, and traditional gender roles play in the acceptance of sexual minorities.

Popular Theopolitics and the Last Russian Tsar’s Intangible Remains

Abstract The article tells the story of the remains of the last Russian Tsar Nicholas II and his family, who were killed in Ekaterinburg in 1918, discovered in 1979, found again in 1991, solemnly buried in 1998, and canonized as saints by the Russian Orthodox Church in 2000. Thoroughly researched in the cause of official criminal investigation and identified with genetic tests in several labs in Russia and abroad, the royal remains have not been recognized by the Church. The failure to reach a consensus on the veracity of the remains of the Romanovs occurred in parallel with the inability to decide what to do with the mummified body of Soviet founder Vladimir Lenin, a contemporary of Nicholas II who has been kept in a mausoleum in the Red Square since the 1920s. Though, after 1991, voices have been raised for removing his body from this symbolic center of the country, no consensus has been reached so far as to where to move it and why. Revisiting Verdery’s famous work, the present article argues that such a movement necessitates a political commitment to voicing new notions of belonging and citizenship. The liminal status of these two bodies proves that the contemporary state in Russia is a continuation of both the Soviet and imperial state programs, not a new political structure like other post-socialist countries. Based on the works by Kantorowicz and Cherniavsky, this research develops the concept of popular theopolitics and aims to examine how people’s political and religious ontologies make use of the Tsar’s image.

Security Challenges for Ukrainian Orthodoxy During the Russian-Ukrainian War

The article looks at the rapid changes taking place in the Orthodox environment of Ukraine during the Russian-Ukrainian war, exploring the main challenges for Ukrainian Orthodoxy and the issue of the religious security of Ukraine. It discusses the Law “On the Protection of the Consti- tutional Order in the Sphere of Religious Organisations” adopted by the Ukrainian Parliament on August 20, 2024, and the tensions within Ukrainian Orthodoxy, notably from the perspective of the relations between the Ukrainian Orthodox Church (UOC), and the Orthodox Church of Ukraine (OCU), and the position of the UOC towards the Russian Orthodox Church. Article history: Received 10.11.2024; Revised 01.11.2024; Accepted 11.11.2024. Available online: 11.01.2025; Available print: 30.01.2025.

The Ukrainian Ecclesiastical Crisis and Its Global Reverberations: The Russian Exarchate in Africa as a Case Study

This article explores the Ukrainian ecclesiastical crisis, focusing on the granting of autocephaly to the Orthodox Church of Ukraine (OCU) by the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople in 2019 and its global repercussions. The study highlights the schism with the Russian Orthodox Church (ROC), which views this move as a challenge to its canonical authority and geopolitical influence. A key case examined is the ROC’s establishment of the Exarchate in Africa, traditionally under the jurisdiction of the Patriarchate of Alexandria, showcasing how theological disputes intersect with geopolitical ambitions. The article delves into issues such as nationalism, the Russky Mir ideology, and canonical principles to analyze the broader implications for Orthodox unity, synodality, and global mission. It argues that while the crisis threatens ecclesiastical cohesion, it also offers an opportunity for renewal, reflection, and a redefinition of Orthodox structures to better navigate contemporary challenges. Article history: Received 10.11.2024; Revised 01.11.2024; Accepted 11.11.2024. Available online: 11.01.2025; Available print: 30.01.2025.

Sobornost’: Dream or Reality?

This essay explores the concept of sobornost’ as a cornerstone of Orthodox ecclesiology, tracing its origins, theological implications, and philosophical underpinnings. Coined in the context of 19th-century Slavophile thought, sobornost’—often translated as “catholicity”—balances unity and freedom, offering a mystical vision of the Church as the Body of Christ. The paper examines the term’s adoption into Western theology, its early articulations by thinkers like Khomiakov, and its prominence in ecumenical dialogue, particularly through the Fellowship of St. Alban and St. Sergius. However, the ideal of sobornost’, emphasizing love and mutual prayer, is juxtaposed against the modern struggles of the Orthodox Church, highlighting tensions between spiritual ideals and political realities. The discussion concludes by questioning the contemporary relevance of sobornost’ amid ecclesiastical and geopolitical challenges. Article history: Received 10.11.2024; Revised 01.11.2024; Accepted 11.11.2024. Available online: 11.01.2025; Available print: 30.01.2025.

Global Orthodoxy: Desperate Need for Self-critique

New concerns about Orthodoxy grow within and without it. Many no longer have a romantic outlook on Orthodoxy of the sort that flourished in the second half of the 20th century but see it as intrinsically susceptible to weaponisation. To correct this outlook, the Orthodox need to start a thorough self-evaluation through ecclesiology and political theology. The paper explores the ecclesiological and theopolitical preconditions that have led to the support of dictatorships in the past, as well as the modern wars waged between the Orthodox peoples. It also suggests ways out of the ongoing crises of the Orthodox identity and theology based on the Church’s emancipation from imperial and authoritarian phantoms, as well as on observing the demarcation lines between the church and the state. Shifting from the “ecclesiology from above” to the “ecclesiology from below” could help the Orthodox church overcome the crises. Article history: Received 10.11.2024; Revised 01.11.2024; Accepted 1.11.2024. Available online: 11.01.2025; Available print: 30.01.2025

The Russian Church calls out to the world… From the history of the Soviet-American church forums of the Cold War Era

Relevance. In the current state of international relations, the historical experience of building and maintaining communication by actors of public diplomacy (confessional structures) in conflict periods is of particular importance. One of the most difficult periods in national history was the period of the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States. At the moment, however, the forces of the political and diplomatic structures of Russia's key historical denomination, the Russian Orthodox Church, were aimed at maintaining and developing a constant dialogue with the confessional organizations of the key geopolitical opponent. The central theme of this interaction was the international peacekeeping movement. It was designed to prevent the confrontation from escalating into an open conflict and formed a significant event agenda (events and forums) at which representatives of the church structures of two (and more often in a wider international composition) countries interacted, exchanged views and formed consolidated content: statements, notes, proclamations postulating the need to preserve peace in the name of higher Christian values and the preservation of lives.The purpose of the study is to examine the practice of church diplomatic activity of the hierarchy of the Russian Orthodox Church in the interaction of the Department of External Church Relations and the Publishing Department of the Moscow Patriarchate.Objectives: to reveal the specifics and characteristic features of the practical diplomatic organizational work of church structures in the organization of church forums in Soviet Russia in the early 1970s.Methodology. The principles of objectivity and historicism were applied during the research. To solve the tasks set by the author, historical-genetic, historical-systemic, historical-comparative, typological, retrospective methods were used.Results. The study of unique, previously unexplored and published sources allowed an unbiased reconstruction of the process of organizing a church forum in the development of the "peacekeeping activities" of the Russian Orthodox Church in the early 1970s.Conclusions. The sources demonstrate the development of the practice of church diplomatic work, allow us to reconstruct the specifics, course, timing, dynamics and circumstances of the organization of the peacekeeping forum of the Russian Orthodox Church in the conditions of Soviet reality in the early 1970s. The role of church structures is marked and described (the Publishing Department and its chairman, the Moscow Theological Academy), directly and formally unrelated to the conduct of international work.

The Bulgarian Ethnic Model: “Secular” Religion, Denominational Admissibility and Territorial Tolerance

The so-called The Bulgarian ethnic model is a Bulgarian political philosophy that presents itself as a formula that theorizes the ethno-religious balance in the post-communist society. The paradigm was created immediately after the fall of the regime of the communist dictator Todor Zhivkov and became matter of a fierce discussion of often contradictory opinions. The promoter of the mentioned particular matrix was the emerging post-communist and pro-democracy academic Bulgarian community with their professional invention, not the politicians. The latter rather hindered the public dialogue, being dominant supporters of the various tendencies of the remnants of nationalism. It reflects not only a specific stage of the country’s political development, but also the economic, social and folk-psychological momentum of the local society. Three main factors determine the specificity of the ethno-religious tolerance of the Bulgarian society. In the first place, it is the presence of de facto content oxymoron “secular religion” in the society at the expense of practically zero indoctrination of the religious practices. It is about the irreversible erosion of the public authority of the Christian and Muslim clergy. In the second place, we can note the wonderful stitching of the most statesmanlike, secular Christian denomination – Eastern Orthodoxy and the most tolerant Islamic orthodox school – Hanafi Sunnism. It is about a kind of interreligious harmony. Thirdly, the successful sustainability of the Bulgarian ethno-confessional balance is due to the so-called positional tolerance, relating it to the geographical distribution between the different religious groups.

The Religious Factor in the Development of Folk Education in Podillia (1864–1917): Historical and Comparative Aspects of Spiritual and Intellectual Education

The article analyzes the role of the religious factor in the development of folk education in Podillia between 1864 and 1917, particularly in the context of the educational reforms of the Russian Empire. The study explores the relationship between religious education and general education in religious institutions such as monastery schools, theological seminaries, parish schools, as well as the role of state zemstvo schools. It emphasizes that religious education, alongside general education, played an important role in shaping moral and ethical standards, especially in the context of Podillia, a multi-confessional region where Orthodox Christians, Catholics, Jews, and Protestants coexisted. The article examines the specific features of religious education for each of these groups, providing a comprehensive view of the educational situation in Podillia during this period. Particular attention is paid to religious schools as instruments for preserving national and cultural traditions in the context of the policy of Russification implemented by the Russian Empire, especially in the western provinces. The study investigates how, despite efforts by the government to Russify education, church schools not only provided religious instruction but also fundamental general education, thus preparing students for adult life. The article also analyzes spiritual and intellectual education, which became the foundation for forming civic values, social norms, and an active civic stance under imperial rule. Church educational institutions in Podillia became centers for preserving religious identity, which in turn supported the development of national consciousness in the region. A comparative analysis of religious schools among different ethnic and religious groups allows for a deeper understanding of the role of education in cultural processes at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. Until 1917, religion played an important role in shaping education in Podillia, where parochial schools were the basis for the moral upbringing of young people. However, after the revolution and the secularization of education, not only the learning process itself but also the cultural and moral climate changed. The loss of the religious component in education led to significant changes in society, including the spread of socialist ideas that differed significantly from traditional Christian values.

The women who stand together

In the last decade, the Republic of Moldova has often been cited as a success story for democratization. However, the construction of a resilient and efficient civil society is still an ongoing process. At societal level, ethnic cleavages, polarized geopolitical preferences of the citizens, or antagonist value systems are hard to reconcile for solving fundamental challenges such as the representation of unprivileged groups, minorities, gender inequalities, etc. Women empowerment is seen as the process that alters social power dynamics by questioning ideologies that perpetuate inequalities, challenging the status quo for obtaining and controlling resources, and transforming institutional structures that uphold power imbalances, such as the family, state, and market. (Batliwala 2007) Our article explores the state of affairs of this issue in the Republic of Moldova, specifically, the perception of women’s civil society organizations in order to understand the dynamic of its winding, but steady, development. As such, we analyze the existing dissensus at societal level over core issues such as gender roles, financial rights of women, political representation, and domestic violence. In particular, we outline the current status of women’s organizations’ success throughout the Republic of Moldova, whilst focusing on discrepancies between formal and actual gender equality, the ubiquity of post-Soviet and conservative ideology, scarce financial resources, and the lack of mass support for women’s organizations. Despite these challenges, such groups have managed to carve out a space to advocate for issues on behalf of women – namely, political and financial empowerment, and actions against domestic violence – by using affirmative measures, informal support, media and educational campaigns. Our qualitative research is based on 15 viewpoint interviews conducted between January and February 2024 with Moldovan citizens in Chişinău, Bălți and Cahul, selected in a gender-balanced manner, aged between 18 and 55. The results of the research confirm the hypothesis related to the role played by post-Soviet ideology, the influence of the Orthodox Church, divergent economic interests of the population, as well as precarious economic thinking. The results show as well that thirty years after the collapse of the USSR, role models can offer guidance to build cohesion and trust in civil society.

<p>The Cojoining of Church and State: A Literature Review of the Millenium Influence of the Russian Orthodox Church on Russian Civilization</p>

<p>The Cojoining of Church and State: A Literature Review of the Millenium Influence of the Russian Orthodox Church on Russian Civilization</p>

A Balkan “Archaeology” and the Crisis of Modernity. Afterword by Dejan Djokić

In this posthumously published essay, Traian Stoiano­vich traces reasons for the crisis of modernity in the Balkans, from the Late Antiquity to the modern era. Stoianovich approaches the subject from the perspectives of both a micro historian and a transnational and global historian, always in dialogue with other disciplines. He looks at how the development of premodern Bal­kan nations and their medieval states was impacted by imperial conquests (Roman, Byzantine, Ottoman). He points out at both ruptures and continuities while analysing Balkan societies during the Ottoman era. The question of socioeconomic backwardness is given due consideration. Contrary to popular perceptions, the ideas of Enlightenment reached the Balkans and had an impact on the region, which tried to copy outside models. Following the Protestant Reformation and especially the French Revolution, two models of modernity emerged in Europe: Europe I of liber­ties (privileges) and Europe II of liberty. Stoianovich argues that among Orthodox Christians in the Balkans advocates of moderni­ty tended to favour Europe II.

The Serbian Identity of FK Crvena zvezda (FC Red Star Belgrade) in the Socialist Era: Perspectives from Memoirs and Biographies

The article argues that the Crvena zvezda Football Club (FC Red Star Belgrade) maintained both Serbian and pan-Serbi­an identity during the socialist era (1945–1991), based on primary sources such as memoirs, and biographies. With no Serbian dy­nasty or state, and the Serbian Orthodox Church marginalized, FK Crvena zvezda became a unifying factor for the Serbian people in socialist Yugoslavia.

Image of the Russian Orthodox Church in the Newspaper Pravda in 1922

Image of the Russian Orthodox Church in the Newspaper Pravda in 1922

The Politics of Secularism in Ethiopia: Repression and Co-option Towards the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church

Secularism in Ethiopia has not been practiced as stipulated in the 1995 Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) constitution, separation of state and religion. Instead, consecutive regimes since the introduction of secularism employed tactic of co-option and repression towards the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church (EOTC) to meet their political objectives. This article thus tried to address the nature and manifestation of government intervention in the EOTC through either co-option and/or repression, with a special emphasis on the post-2018 regime. The study argues de facto secularism in Ethiopia is far from the essence of separation of state and religion; it is a new version of religion industriously implemented by governments to upgrade the Orthodox Church in a way that fits with the political system. The secular regimes co-opted and repressed the church conditionally at any cost of the institution through the Machiavellian approach. The study also finds that the Prosperity-led regime was actively involved in the internal affairs of the church—in the early days through co-option in the name of reconciliation with the exile synod and later through repression. Manifestations of this repression include the mass killing of orthodox followers, burning of churches and restriction on the church’s annual ceremony, as in the case of Epiphany and Meskel (Demera).

Идея христианского единства Вл.С. Соловьева в условиях вызовов XX–XXI веков

This article examines the concept of Christian unity in the context of Russian philosophical thought. The author analyzes the works of Vl.S. Solovyov, as well as the works of Russian religious philosophers of the early 20th century, theologians and church leaders of the 20th-21st centuries, devoted to issues of ecclesiastic unity. The study demonstrates the enduring relevance of Solovyov’s ideas on ecclesiastic unity in the context of modern geopolitical and sociocultural challenges. The work relies on the encyclicals of the Roman pontiffs, the official decrees of the Second Vatican Council, the definitions of the Bishops' Council of the Russian Orthodox Church, the views of Russian philosophers of the 20th century, among whom N.O. Lossky, V.V. Zenkovsky, G.V. Florovsky, S.N. Bulgakov, S.L. Frank, and A.F. Losev. The author implements the historical and philosophical research method, as well as methods of historical analysis and comparative religion. The article analyzes the evolution of the idea of Christian unity in the thought of Vl.S. Solovyov from the project of ecclesiastic unity to the eschatological pessimism of “Three Conversations about War, Progress and the End of World History”. The author pays attention to its reception in the intellectual and church space of the 20th and 21st centuries and the relevance for determining the directions of contemporary Russian society’s development. In essence, the author of the article substantiates the thesis that the idea of Christian unity of Vl.S. Solovyov could be a possible intellectual basis in formulating responses to the challenges that the church faces today regarding its participation in creating humane world order.

Проблемы биоэтики в социальных доктринах православного христианства: сравнительный анализ

The purpose of the study is to identify common and specific features in the understanding of bioethical problems in the social doctrines of Orthodox Christianity. The article considers the official documents of the Patriarchate of Constantinople and the Russian Orthodox Church, which reveal the theological approach to the main problems of bioethics: attitude to reproductive technologies, abortion, contraception, euthanasia, transplantology, human cloning, homosexuality. The scientific novelty of the study lies in the fact that it provides a comparative analysis of the bioethical positions of the Patriarchate of Constantinople and the Russian Orthodox Church in the context of religious studies explication of the doctrinal specificity of the modern socio-political position of Orthodox Christianity. As a result of the study it was found out that in contrast to the dogmatic unity of Orthodox Christianity, the social doctrines of the Patriarchates of Constantinople and Moscow demonstrate different approaches to some bioethical problems, which allows us to talk about the contextualization of social positions within Orthodox Christianity. The contextual character of Orthodox social doctrines is conditioned by historical and cultural specifics, as well as by the modern socio-political situation.

«Nothing can be done without informing and authorizing the Delegate»: Zygmunt Zagórowski, an official of the Ministry of Confessions and Public Education, and the Studim of Orthodox Theology at the University of Warsaw in 1929–1939

The Studium of Orthodox Theology at the University of Warsaw (1925–1939), where graduates of the Kyiv Theological Academy also taught, was one of the unique cultural and educational phenomena of interwar Poland. Its history has already been the subject of a number of special studies by Polish, Ukrainian, and Belarusian authors. Most of them, directly or indirectly, emphasize the complexity and intricacy of church-state relations in the II Rzecz Pospolita. There was an obvious desire on the part of the government to control all forms of the Orthodox Church's «life» as much as possible. The functioning of an Orthodox theological faculty in the capital's university is one illustrative example of the implementation of this policy. The Ministry of Confessions and Public Education comprehensively supervised the process of training Orthodox theologians. Its main goal was not concealed - to guarantee the formation of specialists from among the representatives of national minorities who were undoubtedly loyal to the Polish state. And ideally, their complete «polonization».The article provides an overview of the activities of Zygmunt Zagórowski, an official of the ministry, a delegate of the minister of confessions recognition to the affairs of the Studium boarding school for students. During 1929–1939, he was the main «state controller» of the Orthodox faculty and tried to implement a number of «educational» measures. confidently «competing» for influence over the educational institution with its head, the Warsaw Metropolitan Dionizy (Valedynsky). The delegate's work reports and correspondence with the ministry contain a huge amount of information about the daily life of students and lecturers at the Studium, the existence of contradictions between them on national grounds, and their reaction to «civilizing» efforts and measures for «patriotic» education. It can be stated that, despite the official's intentions, rather modest results have been achieved in these areas (given the scale of the efforts made).

Особливості організації навчального процесу в Київській духовній семінарії (друга половина 19 – початок 20 ст.)

The aim of this article is to explore the features of the educational process in the Kyiv Theological Seminary during the second half of the 19th century and the early 20th century. The authors examine the fundamental principles of the functioning of a secondary educational institution of the Russian Orthodox Church. The research methodology is based on the principles of historicism, objectivity, and systematics. First of all, general scientific methods of historical knowledge—analysis, synthesis, and systematic analysis—are employed. Scientific novelty. The educational process at the Kyiv Theological Seminary during the late 19th and early 20th centuries is analyzed as an integral part of the spiritual education system of the Russian Empire on the Ukrainian lands. The study demonstrates the Russification-oriented nature of this process. Conclusions. The theological seminaries were a significant component of spiritual education in the Russian Empire, designed to train clergy as leaders of the imperial ideology within society. The Kyiv Theological Seminary was an integral part of this system, without any particular distinguishing features compared to other seminaries across the Empire. In the second half of the 19th century, a deliberate process of unification and centralization in the educational sphere was underway, with the 1867 and 1884 Seminary Statutes playing a crucial role. The educational process, as well as the overall activities of the Kyiv Theological Seminary, were strictly controlled by the Educational Committee of the Holy Synod. The curriculum was highly regulated and structured. Seminary students were under constant supervision by their instructors, ensuring their loyalty, if not devotion, to the Russian imperial regime. Graduation from the Kyiv Theological Seminary provided access to admission to the Kyiv Theological Academy, but only 1% of seminarians chose to continue their studies there.