Original Raw Material Research Articles

Production Features of β-Spodumene Composition Glass Ceramic Synthesis. Part 3. Study of the Possibility of Processing Fired β-Spodumene Composition Material1

An effective method is proposed for processing production waste after firing glass ceramic providing introduction into main production of about one third of original raw material with a marked increase in milling equipment productivity.

223. Consideration for Quality Control of NKG Cell Line Used for Adoptive Cellular Therapy

NK cells play the important role in the adoptive cell therapy. As we know, NK-92 cell, a NK cell line, has been used for the preparation of cell therapy product for clinical trials in some laboratory and had been showed the potent effect in cancer therapy. Except NK-92, another NK cell line named NKG was established by Dr Tian Zhigang in University of Science and Technology of China. NKG cell line was derived from a male patient with non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. It was isolated from patient peripheral blood samples and cultivated through long-lasting period in the medium containing horse and fatal bovine serum and IL-2. Finally it was gradually adopted to grow in serum-free medium suitable for clinical use. The surface market of NKG showed CD56brightCD16- phenotype by FACS and showed the cytotoxicity to several kinds of caner cells by in vitro and in vivo assays. Then it will be potential for applying for clinical trial in the near future. So, it is the first step to qualify the master cell bank of NKG thoroughly before it is into clinical trial.The strategy for qualification of NKG is based on the principle of risk assessment. The parameters which should be considered include the original donor eligibility, culture history and raw materials used during its isolation and cultivation, cell banking, cell characters and its intended use. So the qualification scheme for NKG includes the tests for identity and purity, the adventitious agents, the cell character and its potency.Several methods is used for test of identity and purity of NKG. Except the morphology, isoenzyme analysis is used to confirm its human origin. The STR profile analysis is used to identify it is derived from one human body and has no cross-contamination with other human cell lines. A group of cell surface makers is selected and detected by FACS. These makers will show several feactures of NKG including its NKbright celltype, its high purity with no other immune cell contamination, its low adhesion activity for serum-free adaption and its cytotoxic potency.For adventitious agents test, NKG is tested to confirm there is no presence of bacterial, mycoplasma and viruses contamination. Except for the traditional assays, the viruses is extend detected by induction assay by chemicals. The deep sequencing is also used for virus detection of NKG.Other characters of NKG is also analyzed for qualification, including the growth curve, the cytogenetic analysis, tumorigenicity and oncogenticity using NKG cell protein and DNA.In order to qualify the NKG, three kinds of assays are used for its potency test. The cell surface makers of NKG2D and NKp30 which is related with cytotoxiciey is detected by FACS. Then the cytokine secretion is detected by ELISA for IFN-gand by FACS for Granzyme B and perforin. Finally the cytotoxicity is analyzed by cell-based assay.In conclusion, thorough qualification of NKG cell lines established in China will be important and helpful to support its applying for clinical trial in the future.

Complex oxide catalysts of acrylic acid obtaining by aldol condensation method

The present work is dedicated to solving the problem of diversification of the raw materials base for acrylate monomers obtaining, first of all acrylic acid. Acrylic acid and its derivatives are bulk products of organic synthesis with a wide range of applications. The main industrial method of acrylic acid production is propylene oxidation. But this method has instable economic indicators as propylene is petroleum origin raw material. It is possible to expand the resource base of acrylic acid production, in particular, by creating a technology of its production by aldol condensation of acetic acid and formaldehyde. The key step of this technology creation is improvement of the process catalysts efficiency. For this aim, new composite oxide catalysts B 2 O 3 -P 2 O 5 -WO 3 -V 2 O 5 /SiO 2 , allowing to obtain acrylic acid with 57.4% yield and formation selectivity 93.7%, have been developed and explored. In this paper the effect of the catalyst components content on the initial reactants conversion and acrylic acid formation selectivity has been researched; the optimal catalyst composition and optimal conditions for the aldol condensation of acetic acid with formaldehyde to acrylic acid have been determined. The high performance of the developed catalyst confirms prospects of using the method of acrylic acid obtaining by aldol condensation as an alternative.

Water and Carbon Dioxide: Green Solvents for the Extraction of Collagen/Gelatin from Marine Sponges

Marine sponges are extremely rich in natural products and are considered a promising biological resource. The major objective of this work is to couple a green extraction process with a natural origin raw material to obtain sponge origin collagen/gelatin for biomedical applications. Marine sponge collagen has unique physicochemical properties, but its application is hindered by the lack of availability due to inefficient extraction methodologies. Traditional extraction methods are time consuming as they involve several operating steps and large amounts of solvents. In this work, we propose a new extraction methodology under mild operating conditions in which water is acidified with carbon dioxide (CO2) to promote the extraction of collagen/gelatin from different marine sponge species. An extraction yield of approximately 50% of collagen/gelatin was achieved. The results of Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), circular dichroism (CD), and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) spectra suggest a mixture of collagen/gelatin with high purity, and the analysis of the amino acid composition has shown similarities with collagen from other marine sources. Additionally, in vitro cytotoxicity studies did not demonstrate any toxicity effects for three of the extracts.

Modern Aspects of Technological Processes Modeling to Meet the Challenges of Increasing Energy and Resource Efficiency of Food Production

Improving energy and resource efficiency of food production technological processes, particularly the processing of raw agricultural materials, based on the use of modern physical methods, is presently one of the directions of food and processing industry development in Russia. Successful implementation of knowledge-based approaches and innovative solutions in this field is a guarantee of sustainable development of food and processing industry. Simulation is a key tool in solving this problem. The construction of adequate mathematical models of technological processes based on fundamental principles for developing a set of qualitative and functional characteristics of plant origin raw materials allows you to create differentiated technologies of processing and storage to ensure consistent quality, storage capacity and minimize losses of the target product. Using mathematical models we defined the next task as to organize the production of food grain-based target quality when using grain raw materials with predictable consumer characteristics at a certain level. We have investigated the processing of barley grain brewing by electrophysical effects and optimum parameters of this impact: the heating rate of 0.4°C/s and the exposure processing 90C; the heating rate from 0.4 to 0.8°C/s and the exposure processing from 30 to 60C; heating rate of 0.6 to 0.8°C/s and the exposure processing from 30 to 45 s; heating rate of 0.6 to 0.8°C/s and the exposure processing from 60 to 90 s. The values of these parameters allowed us to obtain stable disinfecting effect of saving, and for some indicators – improving malting grain quality of barley. Overall, it can be noted that electrical effects can reduce energy consumption, along with efficient contributes to the destruction of the grain pathogenic microflora of various etiologies, to ensure the safety of the protein complex, the quantity and quality of starch in barley, as well as improve the whole complex of physical and chemical parameters that determine malting quality of barley, and, most importantly, allows obtaining environmentally safe products.

Development of nanotechnology of fine-dispersed additives with the use of cryogenic mechanical modification

Nanotechnologies of fine-dispersed additives based on topinambour in the form of frozen puree and freeze-dried powder with the use of cryogenic mechanical modification particularly cryogenic shock freezing and low-temperature mechanical grinding is proposed and developed. A unique new technology allows to get additives and food products containing record amount of fructose in free condition: 50-55% of inulin is transformed into easily digestible fructose in free condition that reduces glycemic index and the immune system reinforcement. Simultaneously cellulose and protein destruction and degradation occur: 50% of cellulose is transformed into its monomers – glucose and 50% of protein is destroyed to separate free amino acids. It is also established that mechanical and cryogenic destruction, accompanying shock freezing and fine-dispersed grinding of topinambour, allows both to save all biologically active supplements such as phenolic compounds, ascorbic acid, tannins etc. and free-out them from the bound complexes with biopolymers or associates transforming them to free condition (their amount increases 1,7-2,2 times comparing with the original raw materials). It allows to cook product with new chemical composition and excellent consumer properties.

Study of Preparing β''-Alumina by Solid-State Synthesis

In this paper, β''-alumina powders were prepared by solid-state synthesis method with different kinds of sodium compounds such as sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate, sodium oxalate, sodium acetate and sodium citrate. Each sodium compound was mixed with α-alumina by ball-milling, and then dried and calcined in muffle furnace, respectively. In order to confirm the superior condition for different sodium compound to prepare β''-alumina, original raw material with different powders molar ratio and calcination temperature were applied. The phase compositions of mixed powders after calcination were analyzed by X-ray diffraction (XRD). The results show that different kinds of sodium compounds which are just composed of sodium, carbon and oxygen all can be used as sodium source for preparing β''-alumina, but different sodium source compounds need different calcination temperature to form β''-alumina phase. And the molar ratio of sodium compound to α-alumina has an effect on the final content of β''-alumina.

Enrichment of Nigella damascena extract with volatile compounds using supercritical fluid extraction

β-Elemene, germacrene A and damascenine were extracted from lady-in-a-mist (Nigella damascena L.) seeds with supercritical carbon dioxide at 10–30MPa and 40–60°C. The influence of supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) conditions on the yield and concentration of volatiles in the extract and the extraction kinetics were studied. The extraction yields and the apparent solubility of volatile compounds increased with increasing density of CO2. The highest total yield was obtained at 30MPa and 40°C but the selectivity for volatiles was low under these conditions. With respect to both yield of volatiles and their concentration in extract, the best results were at 12MPa and 40°C, either with one separator or with additional separator maintained at 5MPa and 25°C. The yields of β-elemene, germacrene A and damascenine reached 0.72, 3.31 and 3.65mgg−1 and their concentration in the extract was 2.62, 12.04 and 13.28wt.%, respectively. Though the yields of germacrene A and damascenine were by about 20% higher using Soxhlet extraction with hexane than using SFE, their concentration in the extract where fatty oil prevailed was only 1.19 and 1.20wt.%, respectively. Under the conditions of hydrodistillation, partial conversion of germacrene A to β-elemene occurred and its yield was higher than using the other methods but the composition of volatiles in the SFE extracts better corresponds to the original raw material.

THE USAGE OF ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE ORIGIN RAW MATERIALS COMBINATORICS IN MEAT PRODUCTS OF “HALAL” CATEGORY DEVELOPMENT

Integrated researches aimed to develop technologies and recipes for meat products of “Halal” category using seed fat and Milk Protein-Carbohydrate Concentrate (MPCC) represent a new generation of scientific and practical interest. In this connecti on, the authors propose technologies and recipes fo r meat products of “Halal” category, designed on the basis of rational combinatorics of animal and vegetable origin raw materials, that let us to expa nd the range of halal meat products and to develop cost-effective technologies. The results of the res earch have provided expanding the range of functional meat products, including Halal products for muslims, that meet the quality standards of the finished product in the category «Halal». Practical feasibility of using a vegetable fats complex and Milk Protein-Carbohydrate Concentrate (MPCC) «Lactobel-ED» in sausage production has been found. The levels of adding to the formula have been prove d. Thermodenaturation of milk and whey proteins during thickening and drying of “Lactobel-ED” increases the availability of peptide chains and ionized amino acid residues. Solubility study showed that t he concentrate is highly soluble in aqueous solutions, but this has a high dispersion degree, w hich increases the overall adsorption surface. Analysis of the results of structural and mechanica l changes in the characteristics of minced model systems indicates a decline in YV of prototypes wit h sunflower oil on average 99.5 Pa.

Isolation and Characterization of Acid-Soluble Collagen from the Skin of <i>Amiurus nebulosus</i>

During fish processing, a large amount of waste, of the original raw materials is generated, such as skin, bone, scale, viscera and head. These useful resources have been mainly used as feedstuff or fertiliser with low value. To make more effective use of underutilized resources, collagen was isolated from the skin of Amiurus nebulosus using acetic acid and characterized for their potential usage in commercial applications. The yield of acid-soluble collagen (ASC) was 62.05% while the maximum absorbance of ASC was at 234 nm. Amino acid composition and SDS - PAGE suggested that the collagen is possibly possessive of type I collagen. Moreover, FTIR investigations showed the existence of helical arrangements of collagen where the denaturation temperature (Td) and shrinkage temperature (Ts) were 29.8°C and 65.12°C, respectively. There is a possibility that ASC could be utilized as an alternative source of collagen for food, cosmetic, biomedical and pharmaceutical purposes.

Characterization of Acid-soluble Collagen from the Skin of Hammerhead Shark (Sphyrna lewini )

The characteristics of the acid-soluble collagen (ASC) from the skin of hammerhead shark (Sphyrna lewini) (ASC-H) were investigated and compared with those of calf skin collagen (CSC). ASC-H with a yield of 4.23 ± 0.54% (based on the wet weight of skins) contained Gly (227 residues/1,000 residues) as the major amino acid and had imino acids of 205 residues/1,000 residues. Amino acid composition, sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis pattern and Fourier transform spectroscopy (FTIR), confirmed that ASC-H was mainly composed of type I collagen. The peptide map of ASC-H was different from that of CSC, suggesting the differences in amino acid sequences and conformation. Td of ASC-H was 16.89C, which was similar to those of cold-water fishes but significantly lower than those of tropical fish species and mammals. ASC-H exhibited high solubility in pH (1-4) and low NaCl concentrations (≤3%). In addition, the lyophilized collagen displayed loose, fibrous and porous ultrastructure. Practical Applications At present, large quantities of by-products, accounting for 50–70% of the original raw material, are generated during the process of aquatic products processing industry. Therefore, optimal use of these by-products is a promising way to protect the environment and produce value-added products to increase the revenue of fish processors. Recently, many scientists have focused their interests on isolation and characterization of collagens extracted from skins of aquatic organisms. However, no information regarding acid-soluble collagen (ASC) from skins of Hammerhead shark (Sphyrna lewini) has been reported. The aim of this study was to isolate and characterize ASC from skin of Hammerhead shark in comparison with type I collagen from calf skin (CSC). Therefore, the collagen extracted from the skin of hammerhead shark could bring considerably economic benefits as a substitute for mammalian collagen.

Tracing the origin of blue and white Chinese Porcelain ordered for the Portuguese market during the Ming dynasty using INAA

The existing documentary history of Chinese porcelain ordered for the Portuguese market (mainly Ming dynasty.) is reasonably advanced; nevertheless detailed laboratory analyses able to reveal new aspects like the number and/or diversity of producing centers involved in the trade with Portugal are lacking.In this work, the chemical characterization of porcelain fragments collected during recent archaeological excavations from Portugal (Lisbon and Coimbra) was done for provenance issues: identification/differentiation of Chinese porcelain kilns used. Chemical analysis was performed by instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) using the Portuguese Research Reactor. Core samples were taken from the ceramic body avoiding contamination form the surface layers constituents. The results obtained so far point to: (1) the existence of three main chemical-based clusters; and (2) a general attribution of the porcelains studied to southern China kilns; (3) a few samples are specifically attributed to Jingdezhen and Zhangzhou kiln sites. In a chronological point of view, for the studied samples we assist to an increasing improvement of the production procedure from late 15th till the 17th centuries of the Chinese porcelains sent to Portugal, especially enhanced by the association of late porcelains with refining processes of the original raw material, consistent with removal of more heavy minerals. In the case of some samples a kiln attribution was possible, but for the majority of the samples we haven't found yet the specific kilns.

Chemical and mineralogical characterization of portuguese ceramic tiles in the historic center of São Luís do Maranhão (Brazil): an approximation of the mineralogy and firing temperature of the raw materials

This work involved the first-ever characterization of antique Portuguese ceramic wall tiles in the Historic Center of São Luis do Maranhão, Brazil. The tiles were characterized by optical microscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD) and chemical analysis to identify the possible raw materials used in the fabrication process, as well as the firing temperature of these materials. The results indicate that the microstructure of these materials consists of pores of varying sizes with calcite incrustations and quartz grain sizes smaller than 500 µm distributed in a pinkish yellow matrix, which were identified by XRD as calcite, gehlenite, wollastonite, quartz, and amorphous mineral phases. Based on this information, it can be inferred that the original raw materials probably consisted of a mixture of kaolinitic clays (Al2O3·2SiO2·2H2O) rich in calcium carbonates and quartz, or mixtures of kaolinitic clays, quartz and calcite, which did not reach the pre-firing temperature of 950ºC.

Effect of fermentation containers on the chemical composition of fermented sesame (Sesamum indicum L) seeds

The importance of utilizing oilseeds as complementary nutrient sources for human consumption has received considerable attention in recent years. There exists wide varieties of oil crops including sesame seed (Sesamum indicum L.), which are reported in literature to be rich in oil and nutrients; however, the presence of anti nutritional factors limits its uses. Processing grain using fermentation results in enhanced nutrition, stabilization of original raw materials, and detoxification of anti nutritional factors. There was lack of adequate traditional fermentation containers hence the need for use of some modern containers. This work, therefore, studied the effects of using banana leaf and plastic (high density polyethylene) bowl as containers for fermentation on the nutrients and anti nutritional factors of sesame seed. Samples were fermented separately using banana leaf and plastic bowl for seven days at temperature of 35 ± 2°C. Samples were drawn at intervals during fermentation to determine proximate composition, elemental concentrations and anti-nutritional factors concentrations using standard procedures. The pH decreased in the first 5 days and then increased as fermentation progressed coupled with a consistent rise in titratable acidity. Proximate analysis showed an increase in ash and crude fat contents with corresponding decrease in the carbohydrate and protein contents during fermentation. Protein ranged between 15.25% and 15.37% in banana leaf and plastic bowl respectively, compared to raw seed (26.20%). Fat increased from 51.02% in raw sesame to 60.20% and 59.33% in banana leaf and plastic bowl, respectively. However, fermented samples obtained from the plastic bowl had higher vitamin (thiamine and riboflavin) and minerals (calcium, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, iron, selenium, zinc and manganese) in comparison to samples fermented in banana leaf. Fermentation in banana leaf and plastic bowl significantly reduced oxalate content of raw sesame by 35.40% and 29.12% respectively. In addition, phytate content was significantly reduced by 36.37% and 34.43% respectively. The present study showed that fermentation container had significant effect on nutritional composition during the fermentation of sesame seed. Key words : Sesame Seed, Fermentation, Incubation, Composition

Molecular authentication of multi-species honeysuckle tablets

Authenticating multi-species original raw materials in commercial formulations is difficult. Jin Yin Hua and Shan Yin Hua, both classified as raw honeysuckle materials in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia, are used in various medicines. Differentiating one variety from another is difficult based on chemical analysis. We developed molecular authentication of multi-species original honeysuckle in 3 brands of commercial tablets using allele-specific PCR. All 3 tablets contained both Jin Yin Hua and Shan Yin Hua. We also built a PCR-enzyme digestion method and enzymatic mutation detection in the PCR fragments of psbA-trnH and trnL-trnF, and the restriction endonucleases HinfI and NlaIV, respectively. The PCR-enzyme digestion method produced the same result as the allele-specific PCR. Sequence and phylogenetic analyses show that the tablets YXC and YQJ contained Lonicera japonica and L. macranthoides as original raw materials, and LYG contained L. japonica, L. hypoglauca, and L. macranthoides.

Evaluation of Quality and Nutrient Status of Enriched Compost

The disposal of these wastes has been a major concern for the farmers as well as economist. However these wastes contain bio degradable organic and mineral constituents which are of plant origin which can be better utilized for composting. Composting was prepared by chaffed cotton stalks and farm wastes, enrichment with other additives. Enriched compost was prepared using additives like urea, single super phosphate and during the termination of compost zinc, iron, copper and manganese were used. The result reveled that there was a reduction in C:N ratio, reduction in lignin content and total phenol during the composting period compare to original raw material and with increase in other nutrients during the period of composting period.

An integrated biorefinery initiative in producing dissolving pulp from agricultural wastes

Considering the environmental impact and fluctuating price of fossil fuels, interest is growing in the alternatives sources. As a result, the lignocellulosic materials are becoming more popular for the production of chemicals and energy, in addition to pulp in the frame of biorefinery concept to provide a sustainable, environmentally friendly, and reliable resource. In order to assess agricultural wastes for the production of dissolving pulp in a biorefinery concept, rice straw, wheat straw, mustard branch and stem, and lentil stalks were characterized. These agricultural wastes are characterized by relatively moderate amounts of lignin (20–23 %), reasonably low amounts of α-cellulose (35–40 %), and relatively high amounts of ash (4–15 %) contents. For producing dissolving pulp, the prehydrolysis of rice straw, wheat straw, mustard stalks, and lentil stalks was carried out prior to kraft pulping. The prehydrolysis resulted in significant dissolution of biomass (32–39 %) from rice straw, wheat straw, mustard branch, and lentil stalks, which includes lignin (4–7 %), acetic acid (4–7 %), and sugars (11–18 %). The hemicelluloses present in the prehydrolysis liquor (PHL) can be used to produce ethanol by fermentation or for other products such as furfural. Generated acetic acid from the hemicelluloses-bound acetyl groups inhabits fermentation in ethanol production. Therefore, separation of acetic acid from PHL improves fermentation of sugars in PHL and also increases the revenue of pulp industry. Prehydrolyzed biomass was cooked through kraft process and yielded 30–38 % of pulp based on the original raw material with kappa number in the range of 11–21. The produced pulp was bleached by D0EpD1EpD2 bleaching stages. The bleached pulp showed very high brightness (85–90 %) and high α-cellulose content (95–98 %).

UTILIZATION OF BASALT ON THE CLINKERIZATION OF ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT CLINKER

This study comprises the effect of basalt as a flux and mineralizer on the formation of Portland cement clinker, where it used instead of sand, iron and clay at constant lime saturation factor. Three mixtures were prepared, the first formed from original raw materials, in second mixture the sand and iron replaced by basalt and in the third mixture the clay, sand and iron replaced by basalt. All these mixtures prepared at same lime saturation factor. Firing all these mixtures at same temperature 1350 oC with heating rate 10oC/min and for one hour as a soaking time. The chemical and x-ray analysis of the different raw materials such as original raw mix, limestone, clay, and basalt were determined. Also physical and chemical changes during heating up the mixtures were studied by the aim of DSC technique. The degree of formation of the clinker was studied by the determination of insoluble residue, free lime contents, identification of the cement phases such as C3S, ß-C2S, C3A., and C4AF by the aid of the XRD technique, and SEM. The potential phase composition of clinker was calculated by Bouge’s equations.

Substantiation of the use of tseloform sorbent in the treatment of pyo-inflammatory diseases of maxillofacial area

Aim. To study the characteristics of composition of the new sorbent tseloform by the method of electron paramagnetic resonance and to evaluate its impact on the content of free radicals in the gum tissue during experimental periodontitis. Methods. Using the method of electron paramagnetic resonance studied were the characteristics of the composition of the sorbent tseloform, as well as its influence on the content of free radicals in the experimental model of periodontitis. Results. The method of electron paramagnetic resonance made it possible to determined that the sorbent tseloform initially contains a large amount of free radicals (up to 4.6±0.3×1020 for 1 cm3 of a sample), and that is 4.6-4.8 times (p 0.01) greater than in the samples of raw materials and the antiallergenic preparation from cotton cellulose nazaval (England). On the model of acute periodontitis in rats shown was a dramatic increase in the content of nitrogen oxide (II) in the pathologically altered gingival tissue: up to 7.5±0.61×10-7 M (р 0.05). During local treatment with the sorbent tseloform the level of nitric oxide significantly decreased in the gum: up to 3.12±1.85×10-7 M (р 0.05). Conclusion. The sorbent tseloform contains significantly more free radicals than the original raw material, and during local use has a positive effect on the course of the pathological process in an experimental model of periodontitis.

A comprehensive survey on the occurrence of mycotoxins in maize dried distillers' grain and solubles sourced worldwide

As cereal and protein sources suffer a price increase worldwide, the use of alternative ingredients in feeds has become increasingly appealing to the animal industry. Dried distillers' grain and solubles (DDGS) have been one of the ingredients which demand has dramatically increased over the last few years. In fact, the supply of maize DDGS is expected to increase to about 38.6 mmt by 2019-2020. The presence of mycotoxins in these by-products has been a matter of concern raised by their ubiquitous use. A rule of thumb typically used in the field is that the concentration of mycotoxins in the final by-product is about three times higher than that of the original raw material, which may be scientifically backed up by the fact that the remaining portions within the by-product are those which had a higher concentration of mycotoxins (outer portions of the grain). This paper is the outcome of a five-year study during which a total of 409 maize DDGS samples sourced worldwide were analysed for the mycotoxins of major importance which cause the great negative impacts in animal performance and health: aflatoxins (a sum of aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, G2), zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, a sum fumonisins B1 and B2 and ochratoxin A. From the total of samples tested, only 2% of the analysed DDGS showed contamination levels below the limit of detection (negative samples). 6% of samples had the presence of 1 mycotoxin only and the majority (92% of the samples) was contaminated with 2 or more mycotoxins.