Oral Education Research Articles

DYNAMICS OF PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’ EMPLOYABILITY IN 21ST-CENTURY NIGERIA: A FOCUS ON ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHERS IN EKITI STATE

This research sought to investigate the dynamics involved in employing pre-service English language teachers in public secondary schools in Ekiti State, Nigeria. Specifically, the research investigated the dynamics involved assessment of the applicants’ pedagogical skills, personality and classroom management traits in a 21st-century paradigm. The secondary data emanated from the Practical Teaching Assessment Rating Scale (PTARC) and Oral Competence Test (OCT) on 114 unemployed English language teachers. Four research questions and two hypotheses were formulated and raised to guide the research respectively. The research population consisted of 1,050 graduate English language teachers from Ekiti State University, Ado- Ekiti, College of Education, Ikere Ekiti and the affiliated degree programme of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka. The Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, Ekiti State, selected 114 English language teachers for the examination. The sample size of 114 was derived from the selection process aforementioned. The findings of the study revealed that the English language teachers were employable based on impressive performance in oral and theoretical assessments. The research provides recommendations on the need to include digital interactive courses in oral communication and instruction in spoken English while emphasizing earner-friendly strategies of teaching in Ekiti State public secondary schools

Periodontal status following orthodontic mini-screw insertion: A prospective clinical split-mouth study.

Anchorage control is one of the most important determinants of orthodontic treatments. Mini-screws are used to achieve the desired anchorage. Despite all their advantages, there is a possibility that treatment will not be successful due to conditions related to their interaction with the periodontal tissue. To evaluate the status of the periodontal tissue at the sites adjacent to the orthodontic mini-implants. A total of 34 teeth (17 case and 17 control) in 17 orthodontic patients requiring a mini-screw in the buccal area to proceed with their treatment were included in the study. Oral health instruction was provided to the patients prior to the intervention. In addition, scaling and root planing of the root surface were done using manual instruments and ultrasonic instruments if needed. For tooth anchorage, a mini-screw with Elastic Chain or Coil Spring was used. The following periodontal indices were examined in the mini-screw receiving tooth and the contralateral tooth: plaque index, pocket probing depth, attached gingiva level (AG), and gingival index. Measurements were made before the placement of the mini-screws and 1, 2, and 3 months following that. The results revealed a significant difference only in the amount of AG between the tooth with mini-screw and the control tooth (p = 0.028); for other periodontal indices, there were no significant differences between the two groups. This study showed that periodontal indices in adjacent teeth of the mini-screws do not change significantly compared to other teeth and mini-screws can be used as a suitable anchorage without posing a threat to the periodontal health. Using mini-screws is a safe intervention for orthodontic treatments.

Segregation and Desegregation of the Southern Schools for the Deaf: The Relationship between Language Policy and Dialect Development

Abstract: Recent research has shown that a distinct variety of American Sign Language, known as Black ASL, developed in the segregated schools for deaf African Americans in the US South during the pre-civil rights era. Research has also shown that in some respects Black ASL is closer than most white varieties to the standard taught in ASL classes and found in ASL dictionaries. This article explores the circumstances that resulted in the creation of a distinct ASL variety, with attention to the role of language in education policy in both the white and Black Southern schools for the deaf. Archival research shows that while white deaf students were long subjected to oral instruction and forbidden to sign in class, Black students, although their severely underfunded schools provided only basic vocational education, continued to receive their education in ASL, with classes often taught by deaf teachers. The differences in language education policy explain the difficulties Black students experienced in understanding their teachers and white classmates after integration occurred, despite great resistance, in the 1960s and 1970s, as well as the fact that Black signers from the South, particularly older Black signers, are more likely than their white counterparts to use traditional features.*

The effectiveness of motivational interviewing on the oral health of leukemic children and oral health care knowledge, attitude and practice of their mothers: a hospital-based intervention

BackgroundSome studies suggest a higher effectiveness of motivational interviewing compared to common oral health instruction in healthy individuals. As regards to higher prevalence of dental diseases like early childhood caries, oral mucositis, and gingivitis are reported for leukemic children, the present study aims to compare the effectiveness of educating mothers through MI with the common instruction (CI) for the oral health of children with leukemia under six years old.MethodThis quasi-experimental study was designed in Tehran University of Medical Sciences, School of Dentistry and conducted on 61 mothers with leukemic children under age six hospitalized in Mahak Hospital and Rehabilitation Complex which is a Pediatric Cancer Research and Hospital Center, in 2021. Mother and child pairs were allocated to MI or CI (using pamphlets) groups. Data was collected using a questionnaire of mothers’ knowledge, attitude, motivation, and practice concerning oral health care in leukemic children. The children underwent clinical examination to assess plaque index before and three months after the intervention. The data were analyzed using SPSS version 25 (IBM, Armonk, NY, USA) by ANCOVA test.ResultsThe preschoolers mean ages were 4.23 ± 1.41 and 4.32 ± 1.33 (ranged from 2 to 6 years old) in the MI and CI group, respectively. There were 16 girls (53.3%) and 14 boys (46.7%) in the MI group, and 15 girls (48.4%) and 16 boys (51.6%) in the CI group. Significant differences were observed in the amount of plaque index between the MI group and the CI group (0.20 ± 0.04, p-value < 0.001). A significant increase was observed in the mean of changes in scores of knowledge, attitude, motivation, mother’s practice concerning child’s oral health, mother’s practice concerning personal oral health in the MI group (p-value < 0.001).ConclusionsConsidering that instruction using MI showed to be effective in improving oral health adherence in mothers and reducing plaque in children with Leukemia, it may be recommended as a promising method to promote the oral health of such susceptible children in places that they are constantly present for treatment.Trial registrationThe study was registered in the Iranian Registry of Clinical Trials (IRCT) on 11.03.2021 (code: IRCT20131102015238N5).

Using oral communication instructions to improve marketing and financial management skills of sweet potato farmers

PurposeThe aim of this study was to determine the impact of oral communication in improving the marketing and financial management skills of sweet potato farmers.Design/methodology/approachThe study used a quasi-experimental design with a pre- and post-test approach. The sample was 540 sweet potato farmers that were randomly assigned to training (n = 270) and no-training groups (n = 270) with analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) as the method of data analysis. While the training group received oral training sessions for three farming seasons beginning in 2019, 2020 and 2021, the no-training group did not receive any intervention.FindingsBefore the training sessions, all the sweet potato farmers scored low on marketing skills like advertising, sales promotion and sales forecasting. Both groups also scored low on financial management skills like budgeting, investments, saving and controlling expenditures. Their annual income level was also low and both groups did not significantly differ. However, after the training and during the follow-up evaluation, the participants in the training group reported a significant improvement in their marketing skills and financial management skills. There was also an improvement in their income level from $238 (N109,480) at baseline to $523 (N240,580) after the training and $782 (N359,720) after the follow-up evaluation. On the other hand, the no-training group reported a staggered fluctuation in their income of $241 (N110,860) at baseline, $371(N170,660) during post-training evaluation and $214 (N98,440) at follow-up assessment.Research limitations/implicationsThe first limitation is that the study examined only one crop. There is a need to pay attention to farmers of other crops for better understanding. Another limitation of the study is that the researchers examined only oral communication. There is a need to compare more than one training to understand which is more effective. Finally, the current study did not consider the moderating effect of other factors like the source of labour and expenses.Originality/valueThis study has shown that oral communication is an effective tool for promoting the acquisition of marketing and financial management skills and enhancing agribusiness.

Designing Model for Oral Presentation Instruction in Indonesian Tertiary Context

The purpose of oral presentations is to prepare students with the necessary skills for the professional environment. However, it has been observed that the courses offered by universities in East Kalimantan, Indonesia are designed in general English, which may not cater to the specific needs of the learners. This research is intended to determine the optimal oral presentation; however, this study is required to analyze the demands and appropriate model of oral presentation education in tertiary context. Data was gathered through questionnaires and interviews. The questionnaire results show that students need more opportunities to practice logical arguments, pronunciation, collaboration, and regular use of mobile learning to improve their understanding and attitude towards it. Instructors recognize the importance of peer projects and mobile learning in facilitating discussions and sharing among learners and instructors, as it enhances their learning experience. They revealed that online mobile applications such as editing online documents and instant messaging can help to do great collaboration in preparation and implementation phase. According to the result of the need analysis, the authors propose Mobile Technology Enhanced Collaborative Learning (MCOP). It is an oral presentation learning model that emphasizes the importance of utilizing collaboration and technology aspects in learning. The development of the instructional model will provide teachers with a concise and transparent path for teaching oral presentations using mobile technology. This model offers students opportunities to develop their oral presentation skills. The students will have transformational experiences for both their personal and social development.

THE USE OF MOTHER TONGUE BASED-BILINGUAL EDUCATION THROUGH MODULAR TEACHING: PARENTS’ ASSESSMENT ON ITS EFFECTIVENESS TO CHILDREN’S EDUCATION

This study was conducted to determine the assessment of parents on the effectiveness of using the Mother Tongue Based-Bilingual Education through modular teaching in the areas of self-reading of learners on module lessons and activities, oral instruction comprehension of learners, and comprehension of learners on written test instruction and their challenges encountered. Quota sampling was used. The study was conducted on 250 parents whose children are enrolled in grade 1 for the school year 2021-2022 in the six schools of Midsayap Central District. The parents agreed that MTB in modular teaching is effective in the areas of self-reading of module lessons and activities, oral instruction comprehension of learners, and understanding of learners on written test instruction. Regardless of age, sex, tribe, religion, or academic ability, parents agreed that MTB worked well in modular teaching. However, the parents assessment of MTBs effectiveness in modular teaching differs when grouped according to educational attainment in the area of learners comprehension on written test instruction. The parents perception on the effectiveness in the three areas employing Mother Tongue Based-Bilingual Education is significantly related to parents challenges. The delivery of appropriate learning to the learners is hindered by lack of strategies to strengthen their speaking and understanding abilities in their mother tongue, limited knowledge and skills in teaching, and insufficient sources of information.

Evaluation of an advanced oral hygiene regimen on maternity outcomes in a randomized multicenter clinical trial (Oral Hygiene and Maternity Outcomes Multicenter Study)

During pregnancy, dental plaque-induced gingivitis prevalence and subsequent risk of periodontal disease increases substantially as a consequence of both inadequate oral hygiene and changes in sex steroid hormone levels. Although maternal periodontal disease has been associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes, including spontaneous preterm birth, previous clinical trials involving mechanical debridement (e.g., scaling and root planing) to remove plaque biofilm have not yielded decreased rates of preterm birth. We hypothesized that an advanced oral hygiene program, including an antibacterial regimen coupled with a power toothbrush and hygiene instruction, may improve the periodontal milieu and reduce the rate of spontaneous preterm birth. Therefore, we conducted a clinical trial of obstetrical patients with moderate-to-severe gingivitis who were randomized to an advanced oral hygiene program versus usual oral hygiene care, and the primary obstetric outcome compared between the treatment groups was gestational age at delivery. Obstetrical patients with singleton pregnancies between 8 and 24 weeks gestation were screened by trained dentists at two clinical sites for moderate-to-severe gingivitis (more than 30 intra-oral sites with gingival bleeding on probing). Eligible participants were randomized to an advanced oral hygiene regimen, including antibacterial mouth wash, dental floss, antibacterial toothpaste, a power toothbrush, and intensive oral hygiene education versus standard oral home care instructions and regimen. The primary obstetric outcome assessed was gestational age at delivery. The overall primary (dental) outcomes were gingival index, bleeding sites, and pocket depth (reported elsewhere). Secondary obstetric outcomes included birthweight and incidence of preterm birth at <37 weeks. Regression models were utilized and included factors such as treatment group, gestational age at enrollment, preterm birth history, and potential markers of health disparities (i.e., education, employment status). A total of 817 obstetrical patients underwent dental screening at the two sites, 789 were identified with moderate-to-severe gingivitis, 746 were randomized, and birth outcomes were available for 613 of the study participants. The gestational age at delivery was two days earlier in the control group (p=0.040), but the clinical significance of this finding was limited (39.13 vs 38.85 weeks). Overall rates of spontaneous preterm birth <37 weeks and <34 weeks were not statistically different between the two treatment groups (7.0% advanced oral hygiene regimen versus 10.3% controls, OR=1.63 (0.90, 3.00), p=0.11; and 2.3% versus 3.9%, OR=1.88 (0.71, 4.98), p=0.20, respectively). However, we observed lower rates of spontaneous preterm birth among unemployed participants with less favorable socioeconomic status (4.7% advanced oral hygiene regimen versus 16.0% controls, OR=4.04 (1.34, 15.12), p=0.01). An advanced oral hygiene program may reduce the risk of spontaneous preterm birth among pregnant patients with moderate-to-severe gingivitis and health disparities. This is the same group that may be at highest risk of poor dental hygiene and preterm birth.

Prevalence and factors associated with dental anxiety among pregnant women seeking care at a tertiary care dental institution in Sri Lanka

To determine the prevalence and factors associated with dental anxiety among pregnant women seeking care at the Preventive Oral Health Unit, Institute of Oral Health, Maharagama, Sri Lanka. The participants of this descriptive cross-sectional study were 402 pregnant women seeking care at the Institute of Oral Health, Maharagama for the first time. A validated Sri Lankan version of the Modified Dental Anxiety Scale (MDAS) was used to measure dental anxiety and an interviewer-administered questionnaire collected information about demographics, dental service utilization, knowledge, and the importance of oral health during pregnancy. The prevalence of dental anxiety was 61.7% and the mean MDAS score in the dentally anxious and not anxious were 13.4±3.8 and 9.20 ± 1.7 respectively. According to the binary multiple logistic regression model current employment status, household income, dental care seeking pattern, having had a negative experience during a previous visit to a dentist,poor awareness about the importance of oral health in pregnancy, not receiving oral health instructions from health care providers during pregnancy, the perception that oral care should be avoided during pregnancy were independently associated with dental anxiety. The prevalence of dental anxiety was high among this sample of pregnant women.

THE POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF AN ADAPTED NURSING DISCHARGE PLAN AMONG PATIENTS WITH HIP FRACTURES IN HOSPITAL MELAKA, MALAYSIA

Background: Patients with hip fractures frequently face the problem of a longer stay in the ward after surgery and being readmitted, falls, and being unable to carry out daily activities after discharge from the hospital. A nursing discharge plan is widely recognised as one of the strategies for addressing these issues. In Malaysia, however, it is unknown for patients with hip fractures. As a result, this study was carried out to investigate the impact of nursing discharge planning on patients with hip fractures in Hospital Melaka, Malaysia. Methods: A total of 58 patients aged 50 years and above in the orthopaedic ward of Hospital Melaka were randomised using sealed envelopes to the intervention group (n = 29) and the control group (n = 29). The intervention group received an adapted nursing discharge plan with health education activities in the form of pamphlets and oral instructions within 24 hours of ward admission until discharge while the control group received routine discharge practices. Demographic data were taken from the study subjects while clinical data and length of stay in the ward were taken from the subjects’ medical records before discharge. After one month discharged, data for ward readmission rate and drop rate were taken from the subject's medical records while data for the subject's daily life activities were obtained through telephone calls using The Barthel Index survey form. Results: The results of the study showed that the intervention group had a shorter ward stay (U = 254.00, p = 0.008) and a higher level of independence than the control group (U = 205.00, p = 0.001). The control group had 100% of subjects who were not able to be independent in daily activities of life compared to 75.9% of the intervention group (p &lt;0.05). Conclusion: A nursing discharge plan including a health education component starting from the patient's admission to the ward until before the discharge should be considered in the nursing practice. It could facilitate better discharge outcomes for patients with hip fractures.

THE POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF AN ADAPTED NURSING DISCHARGE PLAN AMONG PATIENTS WITH HIP FRACTURES IN HOSPITAL MELAKA, MALAYSIA

Background: Patients with hip fractures frequently face the problem of a longer stay in the ward after surgery and being readmitted, falls, and being unable to carry out daily activities after discharge from the hospital. A nursing discharge plan is widely recognised as one of the strategies for addressing these issues. In Malaysia, however, it is unknown for patients with hip fractures. As a result, this study was carried out to investigate the impact of nursing discharge planning on patients with hip fractures in Hospital Melaka, Malaysia. Methods: A total of 58 patients aged 50 years and above in the orthopaedic ward of Hospital Melaka were randomised using sealed envelopes to the intervention group (n = 29) and the control group (n = 29). The intervention group received an adapted nursing discharge plan with health education activities in the form of pamphlets and oral instructions within 24 hours of ward admission until discharge while the control group received routine discharge practices. Demographic data were taken from the study subjects while clinical data and length of stay in the ward were taken from the subjects’ medical records before discharge. After one month discharged, data for ward readmission rate and drop rate were taken from the subject's medical records while data for the subject's daily life activities were obtained through telephone calls using The Barthel Index survey form. Results: The results of the study showed that the intervention group had a shorter ward stay (U = 254.00, p = 0.008) and a higher level of independence than the control group (U = 205.00, p = 0.001). The control group had 100% of subjects who were not able to be independent in daily activities of life compared to 75.9% of the intervention group (p &lt;0.05). Conclusion: A nursing discharge plan including a health education component starting from the patient's admission to the ward until before the discharge should be considered in the nursing practice. It could facilitate better discharge outcomes for patients with hip fractures.

Analysing the Perceptions of Teachers’ and Parents’ on the Causes and Consequences of Slow Learners’ Early Learning Difficulties in Karachi Pakistan

The development of a nation cannot occur without first addressing the issues of education. Students can learn at varying speeds, from very quickly to quite slowly. Children who fall below the norm for their age group in terms of cognitive development are categorized as slow learners. They have trouble meeting the academic standards of a traditional classroom setting. Educators and researchers from all around the world are beginning to clarify the components of slow learning and conduct extensive studies on slow learners at all levels of schooling. This research looks at pre-schoolers who are slow learners in specific areas of Karachi, as well as the activities and beliefs of both parents and educators that contribute to the problem. The purpose of this research was to determine how teachers and parents perceived the problems and difficulties faced by slow learners and to identify potential solutions to improve their learning. To achieve the objective researchers employed qualitative research design and used a questionnaire to gather information from preschool educators and parents. Findings of the study highlight the importance of characteristics including memory impairment, lack of self-assurance, a lack of social support, and a hesitant disposition in causing learning difficulties. The importance of fostering in children a passion for learning is widely acknowledged by parents. A teacher's ability to provide a learning environment that caters to each student's unique needs and strengths is crucial to the academic success and happiness of slow learners. Unfortunately, there are times when this isn't feasible for a number of reasons. Further support for slow learners is found in individualized lesson plans, extended study periods, learning through projects, and the use of interactive media (such as games), oral instruction, and collaborative projects.

Dental Bite-Sized Bits: A Module for Teaching Common Oral Health Conditions to Multidisciplinary Students.

The Surgeon General's report in the year 2000 highlighted the association between chronic diseases and oral health infections. Current healthcare education programs, regrettably, report only 1 to 3h of oral health instruction within curricula. In the years 2020-2022, as part of their respective oral health curricula, 278 first-year physician assistant and 12 pre-clinical second-year pharmacy students were invited to participate in a voluntary survey examining the effectiveness of animated succinct, online video-based oral health units. Among all student responses for the post-use survey, respondents "strongly agreed" or "agreed" that learning objectives of the unit(s) were achieved after reviewing the videos. Of the participants, 97% "strongly agreed" or "agreed" that the videos helped them understand information of which they had no prior knowledge. Similarly, 98% "strongly agreed" or "agreed" the information was appropriate for their level of knowledge. Most students, 93%, "strongly agreed" or "agreed" the exercise was a valuable learning experience. Regarding the importance of future interprofessional collaboration pertaining to a mutual patient's oral health, 95% of participants "strongly agreed" or "agreed" that they would be likely to collaborate. This study demonstrates the importance of oral health as a critical area of focus in healthcare education. The study also confirms the hypothesis that Dental Bite-Sized Bits units deliver engaging, valuable oral health education for preclinical healthcare learners, incorporating interprofessional perspectives from the disciplines of dental, pharmacy, and physician assistant.

Is the reading crisis associated with an academic language crisis?

Is the reading crisis associated with an academic language crisis? Educators across the globe are trying to solve the reading crisis, as 4th-grade reading scores seem to change annually. Trina D. Spencer, PhD, BCBA-D, an Associate Professor at Rightpath Research &amp; Innovation Center, University of South Florida noticed that reading improvements are rarely observed. Looking at efforts needed to target academic language, two broad repertoires are needed to achieve skilled reading, and both are related to language. First, the phonological aspects of language and second, the broad repertoire is related to the meaning of language. Language that is understood when spoken is easier to understand when it is in written form. Meaning listening comprehension precedes and leads to reading comprehension. Although the science of reading evidence is clear that oral language skills are critical for reading and writing, there is a paucity of guidance on how to teach language in ways that benefit later reading comprehension. Without more attention on classroom-based oral language instruction, educators will continue to focus their attention on teaching word recognition to the neglect of the meaning aspects of language...and the reading crisis will undoubtedly endure.

A study of factors associated with the prognosis of cardiac arrest patients in a depopulated area with a high elderly population transported by Shimoda Fire Department.

Objective: To investigate the etiology of cardiac arrest in patients living in depopulated rural areas with a high elderly population in the Kamo region. Patients and Methods: We investigated patients with cardiac arrest who were transported by the Shimoda Fire Department between January 2019 and December 2021. The following patients' details were collected: circumstance, age, sex, cause of cardiac arrest, witnessed collapse, chest compression performed by bystanders, oral instruction, use of an automated external defibrillator (AED), initial rhythm, advanced cardiac life support provided by emergency medical technicians, and neurological outcomes. The patients were divided into two groups based on the return of consciousness (RC). We compared the variables above between the two groups. Results: A total of 281 patients with cardiac arrest were included in this study. The participants were predominantly men (59.7%), and the average age was 76 years. AED was applied to eight patients at the scene; however, all eight did not have an initial shockable rhythm. RC was achieved in eight (2.8%) patients. The precise cause of cardiac arrest among the participants who achieved RC was cardiogenic, drowning, and suffocation in three, three, and two cases, respectively. The patients were significantly younger, and the ratio of securing a venous route and airway was significantly lower in the RC (+) group than in the RC (-) group. The ratio of helicopter emergency medical services (HEMS) in the RC (+) group was significantly greater than that in the RC (-) group. Conclusion: This study reported the etiology of cardiac arrest in patients living in a depopulated rural area of Japan with a high elderly population. The usefulness of an AED could not be proven; the cardiogenic cardiac arrest was not dominant among patients who achieved RC, and HEMS transport might be useful for obtaining RC.

Impact of Oral Health on Rheumatoid Arthritis

This is a narrative review describing how oral infections and diseases associate with rheumatoid arthritis. From the voluminous oral microbiom, bacteria can get access to circulation through inflamed periodontal tissue, oral mucosa, and carious teeth. This results in upregulation of a number of chemokines and cytokines that often cause chronic, subclinical systemic inflammation with consequent organ pathology. The periodontal pathogen Porphyromonas gingivalis was observed to cause citrullination of proteins that play a role in the development of arthritis by generating of specific autoantibodies such as anti-citrullinated peptide antibody. These migrate and form immune complexes at the synovial membrane of joints. In general, patients with rheumatoid arthritis should have a healthy mouth. Dry mouth is a symptom seen among many patients with rheumatic diseases, also rheumatoid arthritis. Because saliva is one of the principal defense factors of the mouth, hyposalivation renders the patient liable to oral diseases. Consequently, the patients must drink enough daily and use saliva substitutes when necessary, and, above all, maintain good oral hygiene daily. In rheumatoid arthritis, manual dexterity may be impaired, however, causing cleaning the teeth difficult. Hence, patients with rheumatic diseases like rheumatoid arthritis need counseling and individual oral health care instructions by oral health care professionals for implementation at home. An electric toothbrush should be recommended. Regular oral health examinations by dentists are needed more often than among the healthy.

Critical Review on “Form-Focused Remedial Instruction: An Empirical Study” and “Acculturation to English by An Ethnic Minority: The Language Attitudes of Indian Adolescents in A Hong Kong International School”

This article abbreviatedly introduced the main idea of the research done by Chan and Li, which explored how effective the oral remedial instruction with the consciousness-raising method is. The research was completed with several control groups through pre-test, post-test, and delayed post-test. Although the research confirmed that the consciousness-raising approach could benefit for second language learners to notice their morpho-syntactically well-defined errors, there exists some shortcomings which could be improved to enhance its objectiveness and comprehensiveness of it. Meanwhile, the former article was also compared with the research completed by Patri and Pennington, which explored various teaching methods through fundamental experiments, because they both utilized Statistical Product and Service Solutions (SPSS) in their exploration of second language acquisition and made control experiments and made the comparison to find out whether their differences are significantly relevant. The combination of basic language teaching theory and research with the utilization of statistical analysis software, the representativeness of the research methods with experiments, and the integrity of the procedures of the experiment and research made these two articles worthy of further analysis, discussion, and comparison. This paper analyzed the research with critical review in terms of both its advantages and disadvantages, and the data got with SPSS were also evaluated.

Epistemic Stance in Chinese L2 Spoken English: The Effect of Grade and Genre-Specific Questions

Zuczkowski et al.’s KUB model clarified three epistemic stances: Knowing/Certain, Not Knowing Whether and Believing/Uncertain, and Unknowing/Neither Certain nor Uncertain, according to the speakers’ communicated information, and delineated three types of markers: macro-markers, micro-markers, and morphosyntactic markers. The model has seldom been applied to L2 instruction. To address this gap, the study examines the effect of grade and genre-specific questions on Chinese L2 speakers’ choice of epistemic markers with reference to the model by analyzing the self-built corpus consisting of the oral data collected from two groups: Group One consisting of 20 sophomores and Group Two comprising 20 first-year graduate students. The participants were required to answer four genre-specific questions covering argumentation, description, narration, and exposition. The results show that the two group members use similar epistemic markers (EMs) for the Knowing/Certain and Not Knowing Whether and Believing /Uncertain positions but present a slight discrepancy in Unknowing/Neither Certain nor Uncertain stance-taking. The genre-based questions demonstrate a significant effect on the graduate speakers’ use of the micro-markers and morphosyntactic markers for the Not Knowing Whether and Believing/Uncertain and the macro-markers and morphosyntactic markers for the Unknowing/Neither Certain nor Uncertain. It indicates that high-grade speakers are more sensitive to genre-based messages, though they use rather limited epistemic forms as low-grade speakers do. The findings suggest that English as a Second Language (ESL) oral instruction in China should be reformed and supplemented with diverse EMs to allow the speakers to take the epistemic stance they are comfortable with.

ESL Teachers’ Perceptions towards Teaching the Four Skills for Developing Learners’ Communicative Abilities for Ordinary Secondary Schools: Do Learning Objectives Matter?

Country wide, studies on oral language skills in relation to students’ communicative competence are relatively scanty. These studies focused on testing and performance with less attention to oral language skills instruction. Hence, leaving a knowledge gap. Therefore, previous studies did not consider whether oral skills are included in teaching and learning in ESL classes. The findings reveal that effective teaching of language as communication calls for an integrated approach which represents different skills and abilities as aspects of as a single underlying activity. The present study was descriptive in nature. The study used mixed research approach. The study was conducted in Simiyu region, specifically, Bariadi district. The study used purposive sampling technique. The study used total population sampling which included 100 respondents. Only 75 respondents participated in questionnaires and focus group discussion. Thematic and content analysis were used in analyzing the data. The findings concluded that teaching ESL in ordinary secondary schools does not base on the teaching and learning objectives as prescribed in the 2010 syllabus for developing learners’ communicative competence. The contributing factors include the negative impact of assessment. This means that both internal and national examinations do not test or assess students in terms of mastery of oral language skills. Also, teaching methods especially integrated-skills approach that is suggested to be used when teaching the four skills is not used at all. Therefore, the present study recommends that there is a need of change of both teaching/learning methods, materials, time and assessment objectives so as to meet the intended goals of teaching ESL in ordinary secondary schools in Tanzania

Outline of the history of obstetricsuntil the 20th century

The profession of midwife is one of the oldest professions in the history of mankind. Its background has been shaped by instinctive human behavior since ancient times, gradually enriching itself thanks to the constant demands of life in a slow process of mastering and observing the surrounding nature. This knowledge was constantly deepened and disseminated more and more widely, giving oral instructions to subsequent generations. It should be emphasized that the first fruits of obstetrics are the midwife - self-taught, who devoted herself to this activity spontaneously. She rushed to the aid of a woman in labor and passed on the experience gained to her successors, often daughters, through demonstrations and oral transmission. It must not be forgotten that these were women with inborn abilities, who, learning in the school of life, through accurate and correct reasoning, achieved extensive experience and proficiency in obstetrics.&#x0D; The aim of this study is to outline the history of the profession, or rather the vocation, of a midwife, from antiquity, through the Middle Ages, to the beginning of the twentieth century of modern time. Today, in civilized countries, children are born in hospitals where they are given special care. However, there are countries where this hospital care is lacking and the help of a female midwife is absolutely indispensable.