Optimal Hop Research Articles

Energy‐efficient multihop routing in WSN using the hybrid optimization algorithm

SummaryThe technical growth in the field of the wireless sensor networks (WSNs) has resulted in the process of collecting and forwarding the massive data between the nodes, which was a major challenge to the WSNs as it is associated with greater energy loss and delay. This resulted in the establishment of a routing protocol for the optimal selection of the multipath to progress the routing in WSNs. This paper proposes an energy‐efficient routing in WSNs using the hybrid optimization algorithm, cat–salp swarm algorithm (C‐SSA), which chooses the optimal hops in progressing the routing. Initially, the cluster heads (CHs) are selected using the low‐energy adaptive clustering hierarchy (LEACH) protocol that minimizes the traffic in the network. The CHs are engaged in the multihop routing, and the selection of the optimal paths is based on the proposed hybrid optimization, which chooses the optimal hops based on the energy constraints, such as energy, delay, intercluster distance, intracluster distance, link lifetime, delay, and distance. The simulation results prove that the proposed routing protocol acquired minimal delay of 0.3165 with 50 nodes and two hops, maximal energy of 0.1521 with 50 nodes and three hops, maximal number of the alive nodes as 39 with 100 nodes and two hops, and average throughput of 0.9379 with 100 nodes and three hops.

LiM-AHP-G-C: Life Time Maximizing based on Analytical Hierarchal Process and Genetic Clustering protocol for the Internet of Things environment

Contemporary smart sensing paradigms, that are provided via diverse Internet of Things (IoT) mechanisms, propagate across considerable domains of daily life, such as health, agriculture, transportation, trade sectors to urban environments and smart cities. The new era of revolution in information technology will rely on processing and analyzing big data that are gathered by tremendous numbers of intelligent sensors, which are disseminated in the surrounding regions. However, most of these devices suffer from restrictions on power resources and processing capabilities, which in turn will enforce stringent restrictions on the network operations. In view of this, the development of novel and efficient energy algorithms for IoT paradigm is a challenging issue bearing in mind that the performance of this state-of-the-art network paradigm cannot be handled effectively by the existing techniques or solutions that are utilized in wireless sensor networks. To meet the requirements of maximizing the IoT network lifetime, we address in this work the challenge of IoT networks as of embedding energy-constrained devices by proposing a novel protocol, namely, Life Time Maximizing Based on Analytical Hierarchal Process and Genetic Clustering (LiM-AHP-G-C) protocol. In particular, the proposed protocol presents a novel optimal clustering algorithm for un-rechargeable battery-powered IoT devices, an efficient IoT heads selection algorithm, a heuristic method for optimal hop selection, and a model for avoiding intra- and inter-cluster interferences for IoT networks. The simulation results show that our proposed protocol outperforms the other existing works in terms of network lifetime, resource utilization, and scalability metrics.

A Hybrid Energy Efficient Cooperative Transmission Scheme in Multi‐Hop Wireless Sensor Networks

This letter proposes a hybrid cooperative transmission scheme for energy reduction in multi‐hop clustered wireless sensor networks (WSNs) where single‐input single‐output (SISO) and spatial modulation (SM)‐based cooperative MIMO (CMIMO‐SM) schemes are jointly used as the transmission candidates. In this work, we consider a linear all‐transmission scenario where the intermediate clusters act not only as forwarding clusters but also transmitting clusters. The numerical experiments demonstrate that the energy reduction of WSN is achieved by choosing the optimal hop length and appropriate transmission candidate. © 2020 Institute of Electrical Engineers of Japan. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Interference mitigation and optimal hop distance measurement in distributed homogenous nodes over wireless sensor network

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) is in large use in today’s world against the challenges encountered in the Sensor world. Energy consumption, routing, interference mitigation are a matter of concern in WSN. Perhaps, overruling interference mitigation would solve a number of interconnected problems in WSN. The proposed work is narrowed down to minimize interference in distributed homogenous WSN, ensuring that all the nodes in the network operate with the same transmission power. In this paper, an optimal shortest distance algorithm, Dynamic-Optimal Shortest Path Algorithm (DOSPA) is proposed to identify the shortest path in communication between point to point nodes. As the data traverses a number of intermediary nodes, a privileged network topology has to be built to ensure proper transmission of data. An ideal network topology is hence built dynamically for data transmission. However, a collision between data packets in interconnecting nodes is likely to occur. Furthermore, to minimize collision a non-persistent round-robin CSMA/CD algorithm is proposed. We study the network throughput, packet delay, corruption ratio by increasing the number of nodes and hence also analyzing the system in saturation state. It’s found that Packet Corruption Ratio (PCR) with CSMA+DOSPA is minimized compared to CSMA. Thus, interference reduction in distributed homogenous nodes is substantially minimized.

Secure and energy aware multi-hop routing protocol in WSN using Taylor-based hybrid optimization algorithm

The advancements of Wireless sensor network (WSN) in large number of applications made it common. However, the energy is a major challenge in the WSN environment as the battery-operated sensor nodes in the network consumes huge amount of energy during transmission. This work addresses the energy issue and provides an energy efficient multi-hop routing in WSN named Taylor based Cat Salp Swarm Algorithm (Taylor C-SSA) by modifying C-SSA with Taylor series. This method undergoes two stages for attaining multi-hop routing, which includes selection of cluster head (CH), and transmission of data. Initially, the energy-efficient cluster heads are selected using the Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (LEACH) protocol for effective data transmission, the sensor nodes sends data over the CH, which transmits the data to the base station through the selected optimal hop. The optimal hop selection is done using the proposed Taylor C-SSA. Moreover, the security aware multi-hop routing is performed by introducing trust model that involves indirect trust, integrity factor, direct trust, and data forwarding rate. The proposed Taylor C-SSA algorithm shows best performance in terms of energy, number of alive nodes, delay, and throughput values of 0.129, 42, 0.291, and 0.1, respectively.

Opportunistic Directional Location Aided Routing Protocol for Vehicular Ad-Hoc Network

The Vehicular ad-hoc network (VANET) is an autonomous system mobile vehicle connected over a wireless link to transmit data packets in the network. It is noteworthy that vehicles are highly mobile with a limited communication range so that they change their network topology frequently. Therefore, efficient and robust data delivery in VANET is a challenging task due to dynamic network topology, unstable links, and high mobility. In this paper, an opportunistic routing protocol named Opportunistic Directional-Location Added Routing (OD-LAR) protocol proposed that uses full broadcast characteristics. The proposed protocol OD-LAR is a combination of geographical location, link quality, and angular deviation. Using all of these three metrics proposed protocol prioritizes the candidate next-hop forwarder (CNHF) nodes at the border area (BA) of the forward area (FA) towards destination node D. The proposed protocol OD-LAR assign the highest priority to CNHF node has the minimum distance from destination, good link quality, and minimum angular deviation and selects it as an optimal next hop forwarder (ONHF) node. The basic aim of the proposed OD-LAR protocol is to improve packet overhead, packet drop rates, delay, and throughput. To evaluate the performance of OD-LAR, it has simulated through network simulator-2 (NS-2) and compared with the directional-location aided routing (D-LAR) and location aided routing (LAR) protocols. Through simulated results, it has shown packet drop rate and delay is minimum in OD-LAR as compared to the D-LAR and LAR protocols.

Optimization by Genetic Algorithm in Wireless Sensor Networks Utilizing Multiple Sinks

WSN (Wireless Sensor Network) comprises of small-sized and constraint-capability SN (Sensor Nodes) which record, send and receive data, sensed to a sink. The network lifetime and energy usability are important challenges to be dealt with. During the working of the SN, the maximum amount of energy is consumed than sensing and processing of data. Therefore, an efficient transmission of the data is required so that the energy can be saved. In this paper, a novel routing and scheduling method for WSNs using GA (Genetic Algorithm) is presented, where the sinks employed on four sides of the sensor field. These sinks collect the data from the SNs having the optimal distance towards the respective sink. The proposed scheme finds the optimized path using GA, during transmission of data from SN to the nearest sink. First, we run the GA for determination of routing paths, where a source SN finds the possible number of optimal hops. Second, the hops or intermediate relay SNs are assumed to relay the data towards the sink, efficiently. The performance is experimented and evaluated using MATLAB R2016b. The simulations have carried out through comparing the proposed scheme with TEEN (Threshold Sensitive Energy Efficient Sensor Network Protocol). The results of simulation comprise of 10 and 20 number of SNs, discretely. Additionally, the direct distance of each node is calculated and the distance through multiple hops from/to the nearest sink is also evaluated. The achievements of the proposed technique are to save both energy and distance for the sake of network longevity and optimal and precise data delivery by multiple hops.

Joint Minimization of Wired and Wireless Traffic for Content Delivery by Multicast Pushing

As more mobile users become subscribers of content services, their subscribed content can be directly pushed from the content provider into the user equipment after the content is generated. In current and future network paradigms, a joint wired and wireless transmission design for this pushing is needed to guarantee the user experience without the extra deployment of communication infrastructures or consumption of resources. In this paper, we investigate a joint wired and wireless content delivery system that incorporates wired and wireless multicast. The users in the same group are served by wireless multicast from a base station (BS), while the BSs of the same content form a multicast tree in a backbone wired network. The sum of wired and wireless traffic is minimized by a joint design of user grouping, subchannel allocation, wired routing, and wired link usage. Exploiting the monotonicity of wired and wireless traffic with regard to the wired hop count, the original problem is converted for searching the optimal hop count vector that achieves the minimum sum of both types of traffic, which is solved by a monotonic optimization (MO)-based iterative algorithm. Compared with existing schemes and according to the numerical results, a reduction in total traffic of 43% can be achieved by our approach.

RETRACTED ARTICLE: Optimal Hop Selection Based Novel Trust Based DDoS Attack Removal Framework for Reliable and Secured Transmission of Data in VANETs

This paper proposes a new Trust based DDoS Attack Removal Framework (T-DARF) for effective trust management in VANETs. Based on a newly developed data centric validation unit and intrusion detection unit, all the misbehaving nodes are removed and allows the framework to prevent DDoS attacks in a distributed and collaborative manner. In other words, our proposed framework ensures a trusted, reliable communication between vehicles and delivering reduced network overhead by handling the DDoS attacks. T-DARF is built of three elements: (1) for the detection of dishonest nodes it includes a collaborative and distributed elements, (2) to filter the malicious data it includes a data-centric validation element, and (3) a delay checking element for the detection and prevention against DoS and DDoS attacks. Also, a new trust-based routing protocol is developed that uses the idea of companions (i.e. integrating the notions of link quality and trust value of neighbors) to select the trusted vehicles and to select the optimal path we imposed a hybrid Dragonfly based particle swarm optimization (DPSO) algorithm. The simulation results proved the efficiency of our proposed trust based framework on detecting dishonest nodes, the malicious data transmitted by the honest/dishonest nodes and also detecting the colluding attacks that destroys the network resources in a short period. Also, T-DARF in a worst case scenario can sustain its performance degrees and outperforms the effectiveness of existing schemes such as TRIP, AECFV and T-CLAIDS.

Impact of Optimal Hop Distance on the Network Lifetime for Wireless Sensor Networks With QoS Requirements

In this letter, the impact of the optimal hop distance (OHD) on the network lifetime (NL) is analyzed in wireless sensor networks with the consideration of link quality of service (QoS) requirements. OHD is defined as the distance between the node and its next-hop’s optimal relay position (ORP) to the destination node, where the ORP determines the performance of the energy-efficient relay. If OHD equals the characteristic distance (CD) of the path, the minimum-energy path for a given node pair can be achieved. Moreover, the link rate also influences the NL. Hence, considering an expected link outage probability, the minimum link rate, which is related to OHD, and its corresponding expected estimation of the average link transmit power of the node are calculated. Finally, an algorithm for joint energy-efficient relay selection and link-rate allocation based on OHD selection is proposed to extend the NL. Simulation results show that the NL can be extended when OHD is less than CD.

Energy-efficient cooperative transmission for intelligent transportation systems

Recent advances in cooperative multiple-input-multiple-output (CMIMO) techniques have encouraged interest in the development of intelligent transportation systems (ITS). They have the potential for use in the infrastructure to vehicle (I2V) and infrastructure to infrastructure (I2I) communications in ITS networks where the energy consumption of wireless sensor nodes embedded on the road infrastructure is constraint. Therefore, how to reduce the energy consumption becomes a hot research topic. In this paper, applications of cooperative communications in ITS networks are proposed for reducing the total energy consumption. At first, the ITS model is established based on the cooperative multiple-input-multiple-output spatial modulation (CMIMO-SM). A detailed energy consumption analysis of the proposed scheme compared with the traditional single-input-single-output (SISO) based scheme is then presented. The comparison conducted between these communication schemes helps us select the optimal one for energy reduction in energy constrained ITS networks. Additionally, under the guidance of the proposed scheme we consider the multi-hop transmission scenario where the energy efficiency improvement is achieved by finding the optimal hop number with the equal hop-length scheme. As a result, we analyze the energy consumption in different situations, and discuss the requirements on the hop-length and hop number in ITS networks. It shows that the optimal results are dependent on the ITS scenarios and choosing the appropriate transmission scheme will provide a good energy consumption performance in ITS.

Optimal Hop Lengths to Ensure Minimum Energy Consumption in Wireless Sensor Networks

In wireless sensor networks, nodes have a low computing capacity, a small antenna and a very limited energy source; thereby batteries are considered as a critical resource and should be used efficiently. On the other hand, the antennas are the biggest consumers of energy, therefore, and their use must be very efficient to minimize energy consumption. In a dense WSN, each node may route messages to destination nodes either through short-hops or long-hops, by using a short or a long radio range. Thus, the hop length optimization can save energy. In this article, the authors propose a theorem to optimize the hop lengths and a routing algorithm to improve the WSN power consumption. The theorem establishes a simple condition to ensure the optimal hop lengths which guarantees the minimum energy consumption. And the proposed algorithm based on that condition is used to find the optimal routing path. The simulation results are obtained by applying the condition and the algorithm on WSNs and reveals a high performance regarding WSNs energy consumption and network lifetime.

End-to-End Throughput in Multihop Wireless Networks With Random Relay Deployment

This paper investigates the effect of relay randomness on the end-to-end throughput in multihop wireless networks using stochastic geometry. We model the nodes as Poisson Point Processes and calculate the spatial average of the throughput over all potential geometrical patterns of the nodes. More specifically, for problem tractability, we first start with the simple nearest neighbor (NN) routing protocol, and analyze the end-to-end throughput so as to obtain a performance benchmark. Next, note that the ideal equal-distance routing is generally not realizable due to the randomness in relay distribution, we propose a quasi-equal-distance (QED) routing protocol. We derive the range for the optimal hop distance, and select the relays to formulate a quasi-equidistant deployment. We analyze the end-to-end throughput both with and without intra-route resource reuse. Our analysis indicates that: (i) The throughput performance of the proposed QED routing can achieve a significant performance gain over that of the NN routing. As the relay intensity gets higher, the performance of QED routing converges to that of the equidistant routing. (ii) If the node intensity is a constant over the network, then intra-route resource reuse is always beneficial when the routing distance is sufficiently large. (iii) With randomly distributed relays, the communication distance can generally be extended. However, due to the uncertainty in relay distribution, long distance communication is generally not feasible with random relays. This implies that the existence of a reasonably defined infrastructure is critical in effective long distance communication. Our analysis is demonstrated through numerical examples.

Optimal hops for minimal route power under SINR constraints in wireless sensor networks

This study attempts to deduce the optimal hops in a multi-hop wireless sensor network (WSN) ensuring power-efficient communication under signal-to-interference noise ratio (SINR) constraints. The authors model the total route power consumption under wireless channel quality constraints. WSNs usually employ a multiple-source, single-sink structure for information transfer, necessitating data aggregation. The authors calculate optimal hops for three different data aggregation schemes. They further propose a robust hybrid data aggregation strategy that demonstrates an improved performance with respect to minimal power consumption when compared with employing individual data aggregation schemes. The data aggregation scheme employing optimal hops has been implemented and results have been verified for an illustrative application in water supply and drainage monitoring system. The authors have formulated the problem as a standard convex optimisation problem. They employ Karush-Kuhn-Tucker optimality conditions to derive the analytical expressions of the globally optimal hops, which incorporate the influence of route power, receiver noise, and SINR thresholds. The transmit power and hop count are varied simultaneously until an optimised hop count is achieved. The relation between the node transmit power and the number of hops in the route is derived and the condition for feasible optimal hops is presented.

Optimal hop node selection technique under network communication interference

In this paper, an optimal hop node selection technique based on smac of theory is proposed to solve the problem that the error of the optimal hop node selection is large under the current network communication interference. Firstly, by introducing the principle of the optimal hop node selection under the interference of network communication, the error information is iterated by using smac of theory to solve the position information of the maximum intrusion risk node of the network, and the optimal hop node selection model under communication interference is constructed. Secondly, role conversion mechanism is introduced, after completing the unknown hop node selection, it will act as the role of the hop node to assist the selection; Finally, the communication radius of the optimal hop node is calculated, as the basis for the completion of the excellent hop node selection under network communication interference. The experimental results show that the proposed method has the advantages of small selection error, and can effectively select the optimal hop node under the interference of network communication.

QL-EEBDG: QLearning based energy balanced routing in underwater sensor networks

In this paper, we propose a Q-Learning based efficient and balanced energy consumption data gathering routing protocol (QLEEBDG) for underwater sensor networks (USNs). We set an optimal next hop forwarder for each node to transmit its the sensed data. This helps to reduce distance between sender and receiver. The energy consumption is minimum. Furthermore, a node is considered an eligible forwarder node only if its next hop neighbour exists. We incorporate this mechanism to avoid void hole problem. Our technique minimizes energy consumption in the network, hence, lifespan increases. The performance of our proposed technique is validated through extensive simulations.

M optimal routes hops strategy: detecting sinkhole attacks in wireless sensor networks

Sinkhole malicious nodes attacks are quite hard to handle in wireless sensor networks, due to the reason that the results of the attacks may cut off the communications by spreading false hops, absorbing data packets. Those terrible attacks are formed from the unique destroying method, which will preferentially destroy the nodes with higher communication function and shorter distance from the Sink node (Base station). In this paper, we propose a secure and energy-efficient detection scheme which can detect the malicious nodes more precisely than the traditional methods. In particularly, a new measure method is introduced in this paper, which is the frequency of each node by establishing M routes with optimal hops from per node to the Sink node. Using the proposed measure and dynamic programming, the malicious nodes can easily tell apart from the network according to the various satisfaction levels and hop difference. Compared with the traditional algorithms, simulation results show that our scheme can significantly promote the detection rate and the false positive rate. The detection rate increased about by 6–30%, the false positive rate decreased about by 5–25%. We also obtain a high energy-saving results in wireless sensor networks.

An Evidence Theory Based Opportunistic Routing Protocol for Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks

Underwater acoustic sensor networks (UASNs) have attracted much attention due to their wide applications in various fields. However, as the sensor nodes are powered by batteries with limited energy and the batteries are difficult to be replaced, extending network lifetime should be taken as one of the primary objectives of network performance. In addition, due to the unreliable communication between nodes, the long propagation delay and high error rate, it is challenging to design a reliable routing protocol for UASNs. In this paper, we propose a Dempster–Shafer evidence theory-based opportunistic routing (EBOR) protocol to forward the packets to the surface sink. In EBOR, the source node considers both residual energy and packet delivery probability as evidence to determine an optimal next hop. With trust-based computation, the number of neighbors participating in forwarding is optimized to reduce energy consumption. Subsequently, the source node enables to schedule the packets transmission toward the surface sink efficiently based on the trust of nodes. Thus, the EBOR protocol can extend the network lifetime by uniformly distributing the residual energy and achieve a higher packet delivery ratio. The simulation results show that the EBOR protocol outperforms other protocols in terms of packet delivery ratio and energy efficiency.

Improvement of GPSR Protocol in Vehicular Ad Hoc Network

In a vehicular ad hoc network (VANET), vehicles always move in high-speed which may cause the network topology changes frequently. This is challenging for routing protocols of VANET. Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing (GPSR) is a representative routing protocol of VANET. However, when constructs routing path, GPSR selects the next hop node which is very easily out of the communication range in greedy forwarding, and builds the path with redundancy in perimeter forwarding. To solve the above-mentioned problems, we proposed Maxduration-Minangle GPSR (MM-GPSR) routing protocol in this paper. In greedy forwarding of MM-GPSR, by defining cumulative communication duration to represent the stability of neighbor nodes, the neighbor node with the maximum cumulative communication duration will be selected as the next hop node. In perimeter forwarding of MM-GPSR when greedy forwarding fails, the concept of minimum angle is introduced as the criterion of the optimal next hop node. By taking the position of neighbor nodes into account and calculating angles formed between neighbors and the destination node, the neighbor node with minimum angle will be selected as the next hop node. By using NS-2 and VanetMobiSim, simulations demonstrate that compared with GPSR, MM-GPSR has obvious improvements in reducing the packet loss rate, decreasing the end-to-end delay and increasing the throughput, and is more suitable for VANET.

Energy conservation routing algorithm for wireless sensor networks using hybrid optimisation approach

In designing wireless sensor network (WSN), the conversation of energy is an important issue to prolong the network lifetime. Most of the energy is wasted during transmission. To overcome this, an energy efficient routing protocol is proposed in this paper using a hybrid optimisation technique. Moreover, a nature inspired hybrid optimisation approach called bacterial swarm optimisation (BSO) is used in this work for energy optimisation in WSN. BSO is an amalgam of two optimisation techniques namely particle swarm optimisation (PSO) and bacterial foraging optimisation (BFO). BSO is used to identify the optimal next hop node for each gateway which in turn results in optimal route. The optimal relay nodes are selected based on lifetime of the gateways and distance in hops between gateways and base station. The results obtained from the simulation show that this proposed BSO based algorithm outperforms the other existing algorithm for routing.