Water Conservation Opportunities Research Articles

Use of Water in Animal Production, Slaughter, and Processing

Water is an essential part of food animal processing, and current processing practices use large volumes of water. Due to climate change, the food industry's access to clean and inexpensive water is increasingly a challenge. The Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) seeks evaluation by the National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Food (NACMCF) to facilitate the safe reuse of sources of water in order to reduce water consumption. There should be more collaborations among stakeholders (e.g., industry, academia, government) to collect missing information on water usage and opportunities for reuse. A complete understanding of energy use and plant infrastructure limitations is necessary to effectively understand all opportunities for water conservation and recycling. Characterization of microbial and chemical contaminants in water is a very large topic that requires extensive work. There are quality standards for potable water but not for the recycled water from different processing states, and different water treatment systems. A uniform standard for, and federal regulation of, the quality of reused/recycled water in FSIS-regulated facilities is needed. Standard water analysis methods are available, well-developed, and reliable. Initial monitoring of alternatively sourced water should be extensive, while ongoing performance monitoring should be in real-time and focus on measuring indicators (refer to Glossary). Water for non-food contact uses will require monitoring of fewer parameters. Some water conservation strategies have been published for fish processing establishments; however, economic and other incentives to incorporate conservation practices or recycling technologies do not exist. Companies should develop emergency programs to manage natural disasters, such as flooding.

Energy analysis and water conservation measures by water audit at thermal power stations

Water and energy are sources to fulfill the essential needs of human life for their livelihood. Currently, steam-based power plants utilize water sources such as rivers and lakes. In India, the consumption of water by industries is about 9% of the total, of which power generation sector utilizes 88% of the share. This study examines the quantitative and qualitative analysis of water consumption in power plants to determine the energy losses and water conservation opportunities to reduce, reuse, and recycle water. A typical water audit case study was carried out at specific coal-based Super Thermal Power Station (STPS) in India. The STPS chosen for the study has a commissioned capacity of 3000 MW having three stages of 1 GW each with a total of 6 units having 500 MW each. The present study includes the analysis of overall specific consumption of the plant, ash–water ratio, and cycles of concentration along with the blowdown water quantity along with other water losses. Also, exergy analysis of main water pumps is included, which is ranging from 46 to 67% for Stage-I. Based on the flow and power measurements and overall review of water consumption in the plant water and energy conservation opportunities are suggested which can yield savings up to INR 725.43 lakhs per annum INR (Indian Rupees) with an investment of INR 457 lakhs per annum expecting the payback period to be within a year.

Water Systems Strategy Relation with Horticultural Crops

Integrated water management means putting all the pieces together. Social, environmental, and technical aspects must be taken into consideration. Issues of concern include: providing forums; Reshaping planning processes; Coordination of land and water resources management; Identify the links between water sources and water quality; Develop protocols for integrated watershed management; Addressing institutional challenges; Protecting and restoring natural systems; Reformulation of existing projects; Knowing the views of society; Clarify education and communication risks; Technology standardization and policy; Form partnerships and emphasize preventive measures. The highest priority for water resource management is to increase the demand for water with limited water resources. Water resources are the foundation for sustainable development, so a sustainable approach must be based on the use and management of water resources. In the twenty-first century, the world faces a major water crisis. The problems stem from errors in the management of water resources. Consequently, the sustainable use of water resources is crucial for humanity. Sustainable development is defined as the goals of supply and today's needs without jeopardizing the goals and requirements of future generations. Long-term goals should be considered instead of short-term goals in assessing water resources. This approach forms the idea of integrated water resource management for horticultural crops. This paper describes the evolution of water use in relation to productivity, how irrigation systems have developed and managed, and a strategy to explore challenges and opportunities for water conservation in horticulture crops.

Small and medium ‑sized accommodation managers and opportunities for water conservation

espanolA fin de lograr una mejora de la gestion ambiental de las pequenas y medianas empresas de alojamiento es importante comprender los factores y motivaciones que impulsan a sus gestores a adoptar tecnologias mas eficientes y practicas ecologicamente responsables. Una muestra de 18 hoteles y campings en la destinacion turistica madura de la Costa Brava (Espana), todos ellos gestionados por empresas familiares independientes, fueron contactados para el proyecto. La investigacion se baso en la combinacion de encuestas y entrevistas semi‑estructuradas con los maximos responsables de los establecimientos. El ahorro de agua se revela como una cuestion de baja prioridad para la mayoria de gestores, mientras que las ventajas competitivas y la competencia por el uso de agua por parte de otros grupos sociales aparecen como factores menos relevantes que en la mayor parte de la literatura cientifica publicada. Se concluye que incidir sobre los factores organizativos tiene un mayor potencial de transformacion de las empresas para el ahorro hidrico que no los cambios que puedan realizarse a nivel estructural o tecnologico. EnglishTo improve the environmental performance of small and medium‑sized accommodation enterprises, it is important to understand the factors and motivations that move managers to adopt more efficient technologies and ecologically responsible practices. A sample of 18 independent family‑run hotels and campsites were contacted in the mature tourist resort area of the Costa Brava (Spain). The research worked with a combination of surveys and semi‑structured interviews directed at top managers. Saving water is revealed as a matter figuring low on the list of priorities of most managers, while competitive advantages and stakeholder pressures appear as less relevant drivers than is posited in most of the scientific literature. We conclude that addressing organizational factors holds more promise in terms of transformative power supporting water conservation than structural or technological changes.

Opportunities and Best Practices to Support Sustainable Production for Small Growers and Post-Harvest Processors in Southern California

This article describes current practices and needs associated with water and gas conservation among Southern California greenhouse growers, Post-Harvest Processors (PHPs), and agricultural associations. Two communication forums were held with the goal of educating the local gas company and small growers and PHPs on the most compelling needs and best practices to support sustainability while improving profit. While some growers and PHPs have made significant investment in energy and water conservation advanced technologies, all participants expressed the desire to work with local utilities towards greater water and energy conservation opportunities that are customized to specific needs.

Water recycling and reuse in soft drink/beverage industry: A case study for sustainable industrial water management in Turkey

The aim of this study was to investigate water conservation and reuse opportunities in a soft drink/beverage manufacturing company. Water use analysis and benchmarking were carried out to determine the areas and processes where significant water saving potential is present. Based on evaluations, water recycling and reuse practices were realized in cooling systems. As a result of applying these practices, the total specific cooling water demand of the company was reduced from 14.4 to 1.2m3/m3 product or by 91.8%. Moreover, the total specific water intensity of the company was decreased 55.0%. Thus, the achieved total annual water saving was 503,893m3. After applications, specific wastewater generation of the company was reduced by 57.4% and hydraulic overload issues in wastewater treatment plant of Kayseri organized industrial zone were resolved. During the implementation of water saving measures/techniques 56,960$ was spent for equipments. Annual cost saving of the company were 97,000$. So, the payback period of the implementations was approximately 7 months. This study proved that water recycling and reuse can successfully be implemented in soft drink/beverage industry as a sustainable industrial water management approach. If successfully replicated in other manufacturing sectors besides soft drink/beverage sector, outcomes of this study can be a solution for excessive cooling water consumption in Turkey as well as other parts of the world where similar processes are employed.

An Approach for Sustainable Industrial Water Management: A Case Study

This study is to evaluate the present water management practices followed at an industry by conducting facility survey and preliminary water audit. Based on the observation and audit, opportunities for water conservation, by adopting an integrated water management strategy was suggested. Also water Acts related to industrial water management was studies to understand its role in pressurizing industries for water stewardship. The work demonstrated that many opportunities existed to improve water conservation through technical, cultural and behavioural adaptations. These included the use of alternate water sources such as rainwater runoff, reuse of water within process units, and need for an overarching water policy to minimise water use and effluent discharge. A conceptual model for water metering and accounting was developed. To involve all the stakeholders for sustainable water management, an awareness program for the employees, interview with the water managers were conducted and their view and opinion on water management were given importance.

Life cycle assessment of cheese and whey production in the USA

PurposeA life cycle assessment was conducted to determine a baseline for environmental impacts of cheddar and mozzarella cheese consumption. Product loss/waste, as well as consumer transport and storage, is included. The study scope was from cradle-to-grave with particular emphasis on unit operations under the control of typical cheese-processing plants.MethodsSimaPro© 7.3 (PRé Consultants, The Netherlands, 2013) was used as the primary modeling software. The ecoinvent life cycle inventory database was used for background unit processes (Frischknecht and Rebitzer, J Cleaner Prod 13(13–14):1337–1343, 2005), modified to incorporate US electricity (EarthShift 2012). Operational data was collected from 17 cheese-manufacturing plants representing 24 % of mozzarella production and 38 % of cheddar production in the USA. Incoming raw milk, cream, or dry milk solids were allocated to coproducts by mass of milk solids. Plant-level engineering assessments of allocation fractions were adopted for major inputs such as electricity, natural gas, and chemicals. Revenue-based allocation was applied for the remaining in-plant processes.Results and discussionGreenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are of significant interest. For cheddar, as sold at retail (63.2 % milk solids), the carbon footprint using the IPCC 2007 factors is 8.60 kg CO2e/kg cheese consumed with a 95 % confidence interval (CI) of 5.86–12.2 kg CO2e/kg. For mozzarella, as sold at retail (51.4 % milk solids), the carbon footprint is 7.28 kg CO2e/kg mozzarella consumed, with a 95 % CI of 5.13–9.89 kg CO2e/kg. Normalization of the results based on the IMPACT 2002+ life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) framework suggests that nutrient emissions from both the farm and manufacturing facility wastewater treatment represent the most significant relative impacts across multiple environmental midpoint indicators. Raw milk is the major contributor to most impact categories; thus, efforts to reduce milk/cheese loss across the supply chain are important.ConclusionsOn-farm mitigation efforts around enteric methane, manure management, phosphorus and nitrogen runoff, and pesticides used on crops and livestock can also significantly reduce impacts. Water-related impacts such as depletion and eutrophication can be considered resource management issues—specifically of water quantity and nutrients. Thus, all opportunities for water conservation should be evaluated, and cheese manufacturers, while not having direct control over crop irrigation, the largest water consumption activity, can investigate the water use efficiency of the milk they procure. The regionalized normalization, based on annual US per capita cheese consumption, showed that eutrophication represents the largest relative impact driven by phosphorus runoff from agricultural fields and emissions associated with whey-processing wastewater. Therefore, incorporating best practices around phosphorous and nitrogen management could yield improvements.

An approach to industrial water conservation – A case study involving two large manufacturing companies based in Australia

This study presents the application of an integrated water management strategy at two large Australian manufacturing companies that are contrasting in terms of their respective products. The integrated strategy, consisting of water audit, pinch analysis and membrane process application, was deployed in series to systematically identify water conservation opportunities. Initially, a water audit was deployed to completely characterize all water streams found at each production site. This led to the development of a water balance diagram which, together with water test results, served as a basis for subsequent enquiry. After the water audit, commercially available water pinch software was utilized to identify possible water reuse opportunities, some of which were subsequently implemented on site. Finally, utilizing a laboratory-scale test rig, membrane processes such as UF, NF and RO were evaluated for their suitability to treat the various wastewater streams. The membranes tested generally showed good contaminant rejection rates, slow flux decline rates, low energy usage and were well suited for treatment of specific wastewater streams. The synergy between the various components of this strategy has the potential to reduce substantial amounts of Citywater consumption and wastewater discharge across a diverse range of large manufacturing companies.

Reducing carbon emissions through improved irrigation and groundwater management: A case study from Iran

Groundwater irrigation consumes considerable energy as well as water resources across the globe. Using a case study from Iran, this paper explores how enhanced farm water management can help in reducing groundwater exploitation and subsequently limiting energy consumption and the carbon footprint of the groundwater economy. Groundwater use for irrigated agriculture in Iran has increased vastly over the last three decades. We estimate that groundwater pumping consumes 20.5billionkWh electricity and 2 billion liters of diesel and contributes to 3.6% of the total carbon emission of the country. Thus there is an opportunity to reduce energy use and carbon emissions by pumping less water. However, groundwater use remains important for food security. To identify opportunities for water conservation within agricultural fields, the SWAP model was applied to simulate crop growth and field water balance for three major irrigated crops, i.e. wheat, maize, and sugar beet in the Gamasiab River Basin, one of the highest groundwater using irrigated areas of Iran. The model simulations showed that by adopting improved irrigation schedules and improving farm application efficiencies, water productivity will increase, and irrigation water withdrawals from groundwater can be reduced significantly with no reduction in yields. While these improvements may or may not result in water saving and retarding the ground water decline, depending on the fate of excess application, they will have significant water quality, energy, and carbon implications. Such reduction in irrigation application can result in 40% decline in energy consumption and subsequently carbon emission of groundwater use.

Managing soils in Sub-Saharan Africa: Challenges and opportunities for soil and water conservation

I n this 21st century, agriculture continues to be an important sector for sustainable development and poverty reduction in Sub-Saharan Africa. Research indicates that 1% growth in this sector translates into 2.5% growth in income for the poor people in the region. However, such growth is still low and per capita food production has been insufficient and decreasing over time because it is based on smallholder agriculture that often provides insufficient incentives to use land resources sustainably. Compounding problems include volatility in input prices, markets, and climate, declining farm sizes as a result of rising population pressures, weak extension services, low adoption of improved technologies, and limited government investments. In addition, Sub-Saharan Africa continues to experience destructive extraction, over-exploitation, and inadequate conservation of soil and water. More work needs to be done to demonstrate to policy makers, development partners, and society at large the full contribution that will be made to poverty alleviation by increasing and sustaining agricultural productivity through investments in soil rehabilitation, water harvesting and utilization, and reduction of land degradation. Several success stories of local soil and water conservation activities practiced by farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa exist, but the challenge is to scale these successes to wider implementation.

Household water conservation challenges in Blagoevgrad, Bulgaria: a descriptive study

Residential water conservation programmes can play an important role in water management planning; yet, in spite of water shortages, such programmes have rarely been implemented in Bulgaria. This paper examines the obstacles and opportunities for household water conservation in Blagoevgrad, Bulgaria. Key informant interviews, focus groups, and a questionnaire were employed in collecting data regarding attitudes toward water management and conservation in Blagoevgrad. Results indicate a general lack of knowledge among residents regarding water saving devices and practices. The local water company has not placed a high value on water conservation education. Nevertheless, most residents show positive attitudes toward water conservation and a readiness to adopt water saving practices.

Irrigation Water Management of Horticultural Crops

WP by increasing yield and/or reducing ET always results in net savings, thus reducing agricultural water requirements. This is a key point in assessing the opportunities for true water savings in horticultural crop cultivation and will be addressed in detail later in this paper. Water productivity in irrigated agriculture varies widely and depends on many biophysical and management factors. Because variations in ET among crops are within an order of magnitude apart, by far the most important factor infl uencing WP is the economic value of the product. Horticultural products are usually high value and thus WP normally exceeds that of fi eld and row (agronomic) crops. For example, using current values for yield and ET characteristic of California agriculture, the WP of corn is about 0.20 $/m3, compared to 0.70 $/m3 for almond, 5.00 $/m3 for strawberry, and even more for greenhouse and ornamental crops. An extreme example of this occurs with vegetable crops grown under plastic in southeast Spain during the off-season. The combination of high market prices and low ET leads to a WP of about 10 $/m3. While impressive, even this value cannot compete with that of industrial and urban uses. Nevertheless, it helps explain the trend of shifting irrigated acreage from low value fi eld and row crops to horticultural crops in many water-scarce areas of the US, a trend that will probably increase worldwide (National Research Council, 1996). Indeed, the WP of an irrigation district in Southern Spain increased over a four year period as the proportion of horticultural crops increased (I. Lorite, L. Mateos, and E. Fereres, unpublished data). This paper describes the evolution of water use as related to productivity with an emphasis on the U.S. experience, analyzes how irrigation systems and management have evolved since the early 1900s, and explores the challenges and opportunities for water conservation in horticulture. Because of the broad scope of the subject and limited space, the paper focuses primarily on tree crops although many principles are applicable to all horticultural crops.

New Directions in Water Research: IWMI at the Threshold of the Twenty-first Century

The International Water Management Institute (IWMI) has made important changes in the thrust of its research programmesince 1995. These new thrusts include attention to the implications of increasing water scarcity at the global level; the adoption of a river basin paradigm leading to new insights into opportunities for water conservation and productivity; application of new information technologies and quantitative analytical techniques; and a stronger focus on policy, institutional issues, health and environment, and social inequities in access to water. This paper describes these changes and provides an overview of the remaining papers in this special issue of Water Resources Development.

EFFECTS OF INTERBASIN TRANSFERS UPON WATER MANAGEMENT ALTERNATIVES IN CENTRAL UTAH1

ABSTRACT. Most of Utah's rapid population and industrial expansion is taking place along the western base of the Wasatch Mountains, with consequent increases in water demand. As a part of Utah's “Developing a State Water Plan,” a foundation investigation of the Utah Lake drainage area, which is at the Southern end of the Wasatch Front, was completed which delineated the quantity and quality of the water resources, present water uses, and opportunities for further water conservation. To prepare water budgets, land use data was collected to delineate all areas using water in excess of normal precipitation, which includes agricultural croplands, phreatophytes, open water surfaces, industrial areas, and urban areas. The water budgets were prepared for the time base 1931‐1960, but adjusted to physical conditions existing in 1960.The Initial Phase of the Bonneville Unit of the Central Utah Project is presently under construction, with costs expected to exceed 300 million dollars. The principal feature of this project is the exportation of waters from the Colorado River Basin into the Utah Lake drainage area (Great Basin). This importation provides a large number of alternatives for allocation, reallocation of present supplies, and exportation. The possible effects of the Central Utah Project for realizing some of the above alternatives is delineated. Fortunately, the features of this project allow a wide latitude for water management in Utah, thereby facilitating its corporation into a “State Water Plan.”