Open Shade Research Articles

Protected cultivation and water salinity in the formation of Erythrina velutina Willd seedlings

Protected cultivation can reduce the harmful effects of salt stress on the development of plant species. The objective of this study was to evaluate the growth and morphophysiological responses of E. velutina seedlings grown under saline stress in two growing environments. The experiment was conducted in an experimental area belonging to the Federal University of Ceará, in Fortaleza, Ceará. The experimental design was entirely randomized in subdivided plots, where the plots were represented by the growing environments (closed-screen greenhouse - CSG and open-sided greenhouse chapel - OSG), the subplots by the irrigation waters (0.8 and 5.0 dS m-1) and in the subplots the collection seasons (20, 40, 60 and 80 DAS), with four replications. Saline stress inhibited the growth of E. velutina seedlings in terms of height, leaf area, number of leaves and dry mass of the aerial part, but provided greater root dry mass throughout the growing season. It also affected gas exchange after 50 days of cultivation. The seedlings grown in the open shade environment on the sides and with lower salinity water had a higher Dickson quality index.

Rubia cordifolia L. Crude Aerial Part Extracts Show a High Potential as Antimalarials against Chloroquine Resistant Plasmodium falciparum Strains in vitro

Pharmacognosy Research,2023,15,2,288-296.DOI:10.5530/pres.15.2.031Published:February 2023Type:Original Article Authors:Magara Jeremiah, Lucy Kamau, Grace Nyambati, and Hastings Ozwara Author(s) affiliations:Magara Jeremiah1, Lucy Kamau1, 2,*, Grace Nyambati3, Hastings Ozwara4 1Department of Zoological Sciences, Kenyatta University, Nairobi, KENYA. 2Department of Animal Sciences, Kenyatta University, Nairobi, KENYA. 3Department of Biomedical Sciences and Technology, The Technical University of Kenya, Nairobi, KENYA. 4Department of Tropical and Infectious Diseases, Institute of Primate Research, Nairobi, KENYA. Abstract:Introduction: Plasmodium falciparum human malaria parasite is resistant to most available medicines in Africa, necessitating research for new drugs. Rubia cordifolia L. is used in traditional malaria treatment in Kenya despite no supporting scientific data. Objectives: To evaluate anti-plasmodial efficacy of extracts from the aerial part of Rubia cordifolia against chloroquine sensitive (3D7) and resistant (W2) Plasmodium falciparum strains. Methods: Hexane, methanol and water were separately used in crude extractions from open shade dried aerial plant parts. Phytochemical composition was determined qualitatively. Anti-plasmodial efficacy of serial dilutions (range; 0.4 to 50 μg/ml) of each extract were evaluated in vitro and compared using ANOVA and Tukey’s HSD test, at p<0.05). Results: All the extracts significantly inhibited parasites growth, in a dose dependent manner. At 50 μg/ml, inhibition was (84.07%, 77.94% and 66.08%) for hexane, methanol and water extracts respectively against W2 and (80.06%, 78.36% and 60.92%) against 3D7 strain. Hexane extract showed IC50 0.551 μg/ml and 2.747 micrograms/ml against W2 and 3D7 respectively. Methanol extract, IC50 1.231 and 3.528 μ g/ml respectively, aqueous extract showed moderate activity, IC50 5.348 μg/ml and 17.341 μg/ml against the strains respectively. Chloroquine resistant (W2 strain) was more responsive to the extracts than 3D7 strain. Conclusion: Anti-plasmodial activities were in the order, Hexane>methanol>aqueous and were attributed to the phytochemicals present in the extracts. This presents evidence of R. cordifolia as anti-malarial drugs’ source. Further work is required to identify, purify, and characterize active molecules for development of anti-malaria drugs. Keywords:Antimalarial activity, Crude extracts, in vitro, Plasmodium falciparum, Rubia cordifolia.View:PDF (236.96 KB)

Physiological responses of the beet crop under agricultural environment and saline stress

The deleterious effects of salts on plants exposed to high solar radiation tend to be more accelerated due to the increase of toxic ions in the aerial plant part. Consequently, the physiological and biochemical processes will be affected. These effects can be minimized, however, with the use of management strategies, such as the use of a shading screen and a protected environment. In this sense, the objective of this work was to evaluate the physiological responses of sugar beet cultivated in different environments and irrigated with saline water. The experiment was conducted in an experimental design entirely randomized, using the factorial scheme 3 × 2, equivalent to three environments (FS = full sun; SSOS = shading screen open on the sides and PE = protected environment) and two electrical conductivities of the irrigation water (0.5 and 6.2 dS m-1), with four repetitions. At 45 days after sowing (DAS) the following variables were analyzed: stomatal conductance, liquid photosynthesis, transpiration, internal CO2 concentration, leaf temperature, instantaneous water use efficiency, instantaneous carboxylation efficiency, intrinsic water use efficiency, and relative chlorophyll index. Irrigation with water of higher salinity negatively affected stomatal conductance, net photosynthesis, leaf temperature and instantaneous water use efficiency of sugar beet plants grown in a full sun environment. The protected environment and open shading on the sides partially mitigated the deleterious effects of salinity.&#x0D; Keywords: Beta vulgaris L., gas exchange, salinity levels.

Growth Performance of Clarias Gariepinus and Clarias Anguillaris Obtained from three Ecological Zones in Nigeria

The growth performance was conducted using Clarias gariepinus and Clarias anguillaris obtained from 3 ecological zones namely; Argungu (Clarias anguillaris), New Bussa (Clarias gariepinus) and Yola (Clarias gariepinus) respectively, to evaluate the differences in survival and growth rates to have fast growing fingerlings for replenishing stock. Eight (8) weeks periods were taken to conduct this work using a semi-flow through a system of fish culture, under open shade containing 25 litres of plastic bowls filled with 20 litres of water, in which 20 fry each from the parental crosses and their reciprocals were randomly selected and stocked in each bowl of the 9 treatments with 3 replicates each. The growth was found to vary from each eco-zone which was highly significant (P&lt;0.05&gt;). Survival 70-90%, the highest mean weight gained was 106.7±21.246 (NB♂ x YY♀) while the least was 45.5±1.674 (AR♂ x YY♀) while the mean increase in length was 20.867±0.664 (NB♂ x NB♀) and 16.467±0.333 (NB♂ x AR♀) and New Bussa broodstocks are recommended for our fish farmers as they proved to have the basic potentials required in aquaculture.

THE EFFECTS OF SOIL AMENDMENTS ON THE GROWTH AND YIELD PERFORMANCE OF COWPEA (VIGNA UNGUICULATA CV. IFE BROWN) SOWN IN A PETROLEUM HYDROCARBON-POLLUTED SOIL

The present study was on the phytoassessment of a waste engine oil (WEO)-polluted soil after soil amendment, using Vigna unguiculata cv. Ife Brown. Top soil (0 - 10 cm) of constant was measured into buckets. The WEO was poured into the measured soil and thoroughly mixed to obtain 2.5% w/w oil-in-soil concentration. Polluted soils were mixed with manure (MN) and/or sawdust (SD) at 10% w/w respectively. However, when more than a soil amendment was applied, they were both added together in equal proportions to make 10% w/w substrate in soil. Urea (UR) was also applied to soil at 4g/kg soil. The treatments available during the study included, polluted soil (PS), PS+UR+SD+MN, PS+SD+MN, PS+UR+MN, PS+UR+SD, PS+MN, PS+SD and PS+UR an the unpolluted soil (UPS). The entire set up or control was left in an open shade for 3 months without mechanically disturbing the soil. Thereafter the status of the soil was phytoassessment using cowpea. Results showed significant reductions in heavy metal contents of soil. After three months of planting, copper in the polluted soil ranged from 4.8 - 6.4mg/kg while lead (Pb) was from 0.89 - 1.64mg/kg in the amended soils compared to 2.08mg/kg in the unamended but polluted soil at three months after sowing. Comparatively, cow dung amended soils had relatively less heavy metal and hydrocarbons compared to other soil amendments or combinations. Results of the phytoassessment showed that there was depressed vegetative growth and yield performance of cowpea in the oil-polluted soil. Soil amendment however enhanced plant growth and survival. Estimated grain yield was lowest in polluted but not amended soils (222.3kg/ha), compared to 956.04kg/ha in unpolluted soil. However, grain yield was highest in PS+MN (147878.35kg/ha).

Application of Arduino Programming Using ML8511 UV Sensor Hookup Guide to Learning the Effect of Ultraviolet’s Level

This paper learn programming of an Arduino. This also explores on how it can be used as a tool for study and research works. Learn how to program with Arduino, connect the project board to software on your computer, create sensor with the decision making and memory storing abilities of the Arduino. The ML8511 UV sensor outputs an analog signal in relation to the amount of UV light it detects and the effect to human body if get UV light in levels. The result are from three different locations, such as two outdoor and indoor start from 6.30 a.m until 10.45 a.m. Data shows that in outdoor during early morning or late afternoon hours the sun's rays pass at a greater angle through the atmosphere. Much more UV radiation is absorbed and less reaches the Earth, on the contrary in indoor UV index was 0. UV levels are highest under cloudless skies, and cloud cover generally reduces a person's exposure. However, light or thin clouds have little effect and may even enhance UV levels because of scattering. Don't be fooled by an overcast day or a cool breeze! Even a long stay in open shade, for example between buildings, may give a sensitive person a sunburn on a day with high UV levels. Therefore, it is important to know effect of ultraviolet’s level, from application of Arduino Programming using ML8511 UV sensor simplify the research.Keywords: Sensor UV; ML8511; Arduino; UV lights; Software.

The Effect of Shade Trees in the Coffee Ecosystem to the Population and Diurnal Activity of Insect Pollinators

Insect pollinators is one of the important factors in the cross-pollination of coffee flowers, which affects the coffee fruit set. However, there is still a limited understanding of how shade trees in the coffee ecosystem affect insect pollinators. The purpose of this study was to obtain information on the effect of climate variations at different shading levels in the coffee ecosystem to the population and diurnal activity of insect pollinators. The shade levels are categorized in three ways, namely high shade, low shade, and open shade. The observation was conducted at the time when the flower blooms with sample units a flower in two coffee branches. Insect pollinators that show feeding behavior in coffee flowers were recorded in the morning, while the diurnal activity of each species pollinator was observed in the morning, midday, and afternoon. The study showed five species of insects belonging to three families and two orders, Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera that showed feeding behavior on coffee flowers. Apis cerana and Apis mellifera were the dominant pollinators of coffee flowers. The difference in shade levels did not affect pollinator species to visit coffee flowers, but their population tends to decrease in the open shade, except Apis cerana. The peak of diurnal activity of insect pollinator recorded in the morning decreased at midday and showed an increase slightly in the afternoon until the end of the diurnal activity. An increase of temperature may significantly decrease the number of pollinators that visit coffee flowers, while humidity and light intensity showed no significant effect.

An app to quantify radiative heat loss from greenhouse crops

Deploying a thermal screen in the night gives a significant reduction in radiative heat losses from the crop and heat losses of the greenhouse in general. The reduced radiative heat loss gives a smaller vertical temperature gradient in the crop. Deployment of a thermal screen results in increases in top-leaf temperatures of 1-2°C, which allows for a higher humidity set point without risk of wet leaves, even at higher humidity in the greenhouse. This increment in tolerance of humidity is the second contribution of thermal screens to energy saving. Both aspects of thermal screens have made increased screening one of the main pillars of “next-generation cultivation”, a term referring to growing strategies that reduce energy consumption while promoting crop production. In order to support knowledge on screens and to stimulate growers to apply the benefits of next-generation cultivation, an app was developed that quantifies the effect of screens on leaf temperature and transpiration. On top of that, the app computes the net radiation from the crop, a figure that has gained attention as more and more growers install net radiation sensors in their greenhouse. The effect of screens is, of course, dependent on the outside and inside climate conditions, the crop, the greenhouse covering material and the type of screens used. The app enables the user to select the screen and covering materials from a number of options and to select from a number of crops. Among the screens, a selection can be made from partly open shading screens to transparent energy screens and completely blocking blackout screens. Also, the effect of artificial light can be shown. The app solves the steady-state energy balance of the greenhouse to calculate the promptly presented output. With the output, a quick exploration of the effect of screens on radiative losses and crop vertical temperature profile can be made, to learn from this for practical use.

Adaptasi Ekofisiologi Terhadap Iklim Tropis Kering: Studi Anatomi Daun Sepuluh Jenis Tumbuhan Berkayu

ABSTRACT Study on foliar anatomic structure of tropical plants are useful to study various aspects of plant life related to photosynthetic, productivity, carbon sequestration, adaptation to environmental stresses as the results of global climate change, etc. This study was conducted to investigate foliar anatomic structure of ten tropical woody plant species including Barringtonia asiatica, Dracontomelon dao, Heritiera littoralis, Diospyros discolor, Calophyllum inophyllum, Antidesma bunius, Schleichera oleosa, Syzygium cumini, Madhuca longifolia dan Adenanthera pavonina; also to discuss its implication to ecophysiological adaptation to tropical dry climate. The results showed that ten woody plant species studied had variation of adaptation pattern to dry tropical climate, exposure to high light intensity or open shade and photosynthesis activity. Plant species in Group II (Antidesma bunius, Madhuca longifolia and Adenanthera pavonina) has relatively higher adaptation compared to Group I (Diospyros discolor, Calophylum inophyllum, Dracontomelon dao, Schleichera oleosa, Heritiera littoralis, Baringtonia asiatica and Syzygium cumini). Some foliar anatomic structures including palisade shape and size, stomatal index, stomatal density, spongy mesophyll thickness, the ratio of P/T and P/S are important characters that can be used as indicator of changes in environmental factors; particularly the density of stomata as indicators of climate change in dry tropic area. Keywords: adaptation, dry climate, eco-physiology, foliar anatomy, woody plant

Veggies and Herbs Made in the Shade: A Growing Season Calendar for North Florida

The importance of using an open shade structure for hydroponic crop culture in Florida has recently increased. Prior to the turn of the century, hydroponic culture in Florida was done inside a greenhouse structure, but it has now expanded to several other types of structures. In addition to greenhouses, production now exists in high tunnels, insect screens or net houses, and open shade-covered structures. In southern parts of Florida, outdoor hydroponic systems without any structure are becoming more common. In those cases, many operations use a polypropylene cover for freeze protection. Diversifying structures stems from growers’ desires to extend the season to meet consumer demand for a longer time period. The purpose of this publication is to indicate what crops have been successfully grown under shade in northern Florida at various times of the year. This 4-page fact sheet was written by Daniel K. Fenneman, Robert C. Hochmuth, Wanda L. Laughlin, and Sean R. McCoy, and published by the UF Department of Horticultural Sciences, November 2013.&#x0D; HS1228/HS1228: Veggies and Herbs Made in the Shade: A Growing Season Calendar for North Florida (ufl.edu)

Effects of agricultural practices on properties and metal content in urban garden soils in a tropical metropolitan area

The appearance of agriculture in urban areas improved the healthy diet of people by the consumption of fresh vegetables and fruits. This study assessed the level of fertility, the impact of cropping system and of exploitation time on physicochemical properties and pseudo-total and EDTA-extractable metals contents of urban garden of vegetable soils in Libreville (Gabon). The results indicated a low fertility of cultivated soils. The metal contents in soils were generally different between culture in open field and culture under shelters. Except Al which could be toxic for cultivated vegetables, the soil properties and metal element concentrations decreased significantly in open field soil with time, while they did not vary in open shade structure soils. The pseudo-total cadmium concentration was below detection limits in all soils. The multivariate analysis showed that Al, Fe and Pb were of lithogenic origin, and Cu, Zn and Mn were of anthropogenic origin.

The effects of temperature and relative humidity on ochratoxin A formation in fresh liquorice root

In this study, the effects of temperature and relative humidity (RH) on ochratoxin A (OTA) formation during liquorice root storage were investigated. For this purpose, a real storage procedure in which fresh root was dried in the open air was simulated. Four RH-temperature combinations corresponding to average climate conditions (RH-temperature) of each season in an important liquorice growing and processing region were simulated as follows: A, autumn (T = 15°C, RH = 49%); B, winter (T = 9°C, RH = 51%); C, spring (T = 22°C, RH = 35%); and D, summer (T = 29°C, RH = 27%). The crushed fresh roots were incubated for 60 days, and the OTA content of the roots was determined at 20-day intervals by using inverse ion mobility spectrometry. The results showed that the maximum levels of OTA occurred after 40 days and were 4.3 ± 1.1, 0.9 ± 0.2, 7.3 ± 0.0 and 24.2 ± 2.5 ngg−1 in roots stored under simulated conditions A, B, C and D, respectively. After 40 days, the amount of OTA started to decline in all samples but at different rates. The results seem to indicate that temperature plays a more significant role than RH in producing OTA by moulds in liquorice root. It appears that 22°C could be considered as the critical temperature for OTA formation in liquorice root stored under experimental conditions. It could be concluded that liquorice-processing plants should obtain, dry and store fresh moist root when the temperature is below the critical point. Moreover, the roots stored in the open shade condition should not be covered by plastic films even when it is raining as this increases the root temperature.

Sun-dried cowpeas and amaranth leaves recipe improves β-carotene and retinol levels in serum and hemoglobin concentration among preschool children

Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) and anemia are major challenges among children and expecting and lactating mothers in developing countries. Intervention with locally available dark green leafy vegetables (DGLV) is more sustainable to eradicate VAD, being cost-effective and readily adaptable to local communities. DGLV contain high levels of iron and β-carotene (BC) and therefore useful in fighting VAD and anemia. Since DGLVs are season-dependent sun-drying enables their availability during low seasons. However, their contribution to the bioavailability of BC and the improvement of hemoglobin are not well understood. The study therefore investigated the effect of consuming cooked recipe consisting of sun-dried amaranth and cowpea leaves on the levels of BC, retinol, and hemoglobin in preschool children from Machakos District, a semiarid region in Kenya. Vegetables were purchased from local vegetable market, with some sun-dried in an open shade. Levels of BC and retinol in serum and BC in fresh and processed vegetables were determined by a HPLC method and hemoglobin using a portable Hemocue Analyzer. All-trans-BC levels in uncooked fresh cowpea and amaranth leaves were 806.0 μg/g and 599.0 μg/g dry matter, respectively, while the dehydration and cooking processes retained the β-carotene levels at over 60 %. Consumption of the dehydrated vegetables significantly improved both serum BC and retinol levels (p < 0.05), while the baseline hemoglobin levels improved by 4.6 %. The study has shown that intervention with locally available sun-dried vegetables improves the bioavailability of BC, retinol, and hemoglobin levels among preschool children.

Impact of substrate amendment on the polyaromatic hydrocarbon contents of a five month old waste engine oil polluted soil

The present study investigated the impact of substrate amendment on the bioremediation of waste engine oil-polluted soil. Top soil was collected randomly from a 50 × 50 m marked plot on a farmland, sun-dried and weighed. Ten kilogram’s of soil each was placed into perforated 25 L buckets. Waste engine oil (WEO) was prepared at 5 different levels of pollution: 0, 1.0, 2.5, 5.0, and 10.0% w/w, and poured into the measured soil, and thoroughly mixed. The entire set up was left under an open shade for 5 months without mechanically disturbing the soil, after which the polluted soil was amended with sawdust and left for a further 9 months. Significant reductions in polyaromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) content of soils over the experimental period were recorded. Total (100%) remediation of some PAH compounds (benzo[a]anthracene, benzo(a)pyrene, benzo[b]fluoranthene, benzo[g,h,i]perylene, benzo[k]fluoranthene, chrysene, dibenzo[a,h]anthracene, fluoranthene, fluorene, and indeno[1,2,3-c,d]pyrene) was recorded. Total PAH ranged from 1.10 to 6.35 mg/L in the substrate-amended treatment compared to a range of 25.45 to 456.99 mg/L in the unamended soil. Toxicity equivalencies (TEQ) in the unamended soils were generally higher than benchmark values, implying that the cleanup levels were not met. In the amended treatments, however, TEQs were presented for only benzo[a]pyrene (0.7284) in the control and indeno[123-c]pyrene (0.0272) in 2.5% w/w oil in soil treatment. TEQ’s of benzo[a]pyrene in the amended 5% w/w oil in soil treatment was 3.1252 mg/L, also higher than the benchmark TEQ of 1.0 mg/L. Key words: biooremediation, substrate amendment, polyaromatic hydrocarbon

Pre-Planting (Cold) Treatment of Allium sativum Cloves Improves its Growth and Yield Under Open Field and Open Shade Conditions

Pre-Planting (Cold) Treatment of Allium sativum Cloves Improves its Growth and Yield Under Open Field and Open Shade Conditions

First report of Tulip virus X in New Zealand

Strawberry mottle virus (SMoV) is a serious pathogen of strawberries ( Fragaria × ananassa ) and is transmitted by aphids in a semi-persistent manner. Severe strains of SMoV may reduce yield by up to 30% and losses can be up to 80% in mixed infections with other viruses (Thompson & Jelkmann, 2003; Martin & Tzanetakis, 2006). In May 2007, leaf mottling was observed on indicator plants of Fragaria vesca ‘EMK’ and ‘UC4’, and F. virginiana ‘UC12’ held in an open-shade house near Christchurch, New Zealand. No virus particles were seen using electron microscopy on crude sap preparations from mottled leaves, nor were symptoms observed when healthy plants of Chenopodium amaranticolor , C. quinoa , Cucumis sativus , Gomphrena globosa , Nicotiana benthamiana , N. clevelandii , N. occidentalis and N. sylvestris were mechanically inoculated with plant sap. RNA was extracted from affected strawberry plants and tested by RT-PCR using published SMoV-specific primers and cycling conditions (Thompson et al ., 2003). PCR amplicons of the expected size (219 bp) were obtained and an amplicon from F. vesca was sequenced (GenBank Acc. No. EU440731). A blast search in GenBank confirmed SMoV (98% nt identity with AJ311876). The plants also tested positive for SMoV using real-time RT-PCR (Ratti et al ., 2006). In July 2007, 35 plants of commercial cultivars of F. × ananassa were collected at random from 10 locations throughout New Zealand and the crowns and leaves were tested for SMoV using conventional and real-time RT-PCR. Indicator plants of F. virginiana ‘UC11’ and ‘UC12’ held in a glasshouse in Auckland were also tested. All commercial cultivars were uninfected but the indicator plants from Auckland tested positive for SMoV with both PCR methods. All plants were also tested by RT-PCR for Raspberry ringspot virus , Strawberry latent ringspot virus , Strawberry vein banding virus , Tomato ringspot virus and Tomato black ring virus and were found to be uninfected. Strawberry mottle virus (SMoV) occurs in many areas where strawberries are grown; this is the first report of the virus in New Zealand. The SMoVinfected indicator plants have been grown in New Zealand for at least 10 years. Despite the indicators in Christchurch being held in an open shade house, and the presence of at least two aphid species that can vector the virus in New Zealand ( Aphis gossypii and Chaetosiphon fragaefolii ), the virus does not appear to have become widely distributed within commercial strawberry cultivars. However, it has been decided not to impose regulatory controls to eradicate or manage the disease and therefore the disease is likely to spread in the future.

Growing Bell Peppers in Soilless Culture under Open Shade Structures

HS-1113, a 4-page illustrated fact sheet by Robert C. Hochmuth, Danielle D. Treadwell, Eric H. Simonne, Linda B. Landrum, Wanda L. Laughlin, and Lei Lani Davis, describes the results of trials of using soilless culture and shade to extend the bell pepper growing season through the hottest part of the summer and into fall. Includes tables of trial data. Published by the UF Department of Horticultural Sciences, July 2007. HS-1113/HS368: Growing Bell Peppers in Soilless Culture under Open Shade Structures (ufl.edu)

Multi-shelf domestic solar dryer

Abstract The solar dryer described in this paper can be used for drying various products at home under hygienic conditions with the self guarantee of adulteration free product. This solar dryer is of multi-shelf design, consisting of three perforated trays arranged one above the other. The drying air flows through the product by natural circulation. One of its novel features is variable inclination to capture more solar energy in different seasons. Another novel feature is the option to dry product under shade or without shade as per requirement. The rate of drying is uniform in all the trays due to heating of the air by solar energy in between the trays. The maximum stagnation temperature of this solar dryer was found to be 100 °C in the month of November at Ludhiana (31°N). The moisture evaporation on the 1st, 2nd and 3rd drying day for drying fenugreek leaves was 0.23, 0.18 and 0.038 kg/m 2 h. To overcome the problem of reduction in efficiency on the second and third drying day, a semi-continuous mode of loading has been investigated, in which the efficiency remains almost the same on all drying days. The drying rate in the dryer was more than double that in open shade drying. Moreover, the final moisture content of the product was low enough (7.3% wb) for grinding it to a powder form and for good shelf life (1 year). An uncertainty analysis was performed, and the uncertainty in the efficiency was found to be 1.35%. An economic analysis was performed by three methods. The cost of drying fenugreek leaves in the domestic solar dryer turned out to be about 60% of that in an electric dryer. The cumulative present worth of the savings are much higher (18,316 Rupees) than the capital cost of the dryer (1600 Rupees). The payback period is also very low (

A Tree Management Ordinance for Huntsville, Alabama

CHAPMAN, DOUGLAS. 1980. Honeylocust grows rapidly, provides open shade for turf. Weeds, Trees & Turf 19(12): 23-24. Honeylocust is an outstanding urban tree. It has been overused, leading to increased reports of insect and disease problems. If not overused (diversity — no more than 5 percent of the same tree specimen in the community), insect and disease problems will not be significant. If overused, borers and many other problems will crop up. This did happen with 'Moraine' honeylocust in the 60's, but with a shift of emphasis and more knowledgeable urban foresters, landscape architects, and horticulturists, this plant is again becoming a desirable tree for city streets, large area landscapes, parks, and home landscapes. Its ability to compete with turf, providing open shade and the fine texture make it outstanding. Its rapid rate of growth is certainly another desirable characteristic. In fact, it is not uncommon to see this vigorous tree grow 2 to 3 feet annually the first 10 years planted in the landscape. There have been some pest problems, but if our rule of diversity in any landscape is maintained, this tree has a place in difficult sites for most urban landscapes.

The range of micrometeorological diversity in the biological environment

The range of temperature and humidity conditions that can exist simultaneously at or near the ground surface on a bright summer day in a temperate climate are shown in a diagram. Cool and warm conditions are defined as having respectively a lower and a higher temperature than the air at a height of 1.50 m above the surface of the ground. Similarly, humid and dry conditions are defined by a lower and a higher saturation deficit (S.D.), respectively. Cool, humid conditions are found in the open shade where only diffuse solar radiation is received. In high reed vegetations on wet soil, temperatures can lie 8°C below that of the free atmosphere and humidity is close to the saturation point. Warm and humid conditions are found in thin vegetations on damp soil with a temperature excess of up to 10°C and a strongly reduced S.D. In dry grassland, air temperatures 1 cm above the ground are up to 20°C higher and S.D. up to 40 mm Hg higher than at a height of 1.50 m. On suitably oriented slopes covered with dark organic material, surface temperatures can reach 50°C above the air temperature.