One-photon Fluorescence Research Articles

New conjugated organic dyes with various electron donors: One- and two-photon excited fluorescence, and bioimaging

Six new fluorescent donor-π bridge-acceptor (D-π-A) structural molecules with various electron donors were synthesized and fully characterized. Influence of electron-donating strength on optical properties was investigated by the systematic alteration of the electron donors. The optical properties of the dyes were successfully tuned by choosing different electron donors. All the dyes in solution show strong one-photon excited fluorescence (OPEF) and high quantum yield. With increasing electron-donating strength of donors, dye 5 with diphenylamine and dye 6 with (4,4′-diethoxyphenyl)amino substituents, exhibit strong two-photon excited fluorescence (TPEF), and the large two-photon absorption (TPA) cross-section values are 1378 GM for 5 and 1654 GM for 6. The structure–property relationships were detailed through quantum chemical calculations and X-ray crystallography. The results of living cell imaging experiments show the values of them in one- or two-photon fluorescence microscopy bioimaging applications.

Fibre‐optical microendoscopy

Microendoscopy has been an essential tool in exploring micro/nano mechanisms in vivo due to high-quality imaging performance, compact size and flexible movement. The investigations into optical fibres, micro-scanners and miniature lens have boosted efficiencies of remote light delivery to sample site and signal collection. Given the light interaction with materials in the fluorescence imaging regime, this paper reviews two classes of compact microendoscopy based on a single fibre: linear optical microendoscopy and nonlinear optical microendoscopy. Due to the fact that fluorescence occurs only in the focal volume, nonlinear optical microendoscopy can provide stronger optical sectioning ability than linear optical microendoscopy, and is a good candidate for deep tissue imaging. Moreover, one-photon excited fluorescence microendoscopy as the linear optical microendoscopy suffers from severe photobleaching owing to the linear dependence of photobleaching rate on excitation laser power. On the contrary, nonlinear optical microendoscopy, including two-photon excited fluorescence microendoscopy and second harmonic generation microendoscopy, has the capability to minimize or avoid the photobleaching effect at a high excitation power and generate high image contrast. The combination of various nonlinear signals gained by the nonlinear optical microendoscopy provides a comprehensive insight into biophenomena in internal organs. Fibre-optical microendoscopy overcomes physical limitations of traditional microscopy and opens up a new path to achieve early cancer diagnosis and microsurgery in a minimally invasive and localized manner.

Lysosome-specific one-photon fluorescence staining and two-photon singlet oxygen generation by molecular dyad

A dual functional molecular dyad, consisting of a cyclometalated Ir(iii) complex and rhodamine B, has been synthesized and evaluated for its ability for independent operations of fluorescence staining and photodynamic therapy.

Synthesis and nonlinear optical properties in the near-IR range of stilbazolium dyes

A series of stilbazolium salts based on donor-π-acceptor (D-π-A) structure have been synthesized and fully characterized. Photophysical properties including linear absorption, one-photon excited fluorescence (OPEF), two-photon absorption (2PA) properties were systematically investigated. The results suggest that increasing electron-releasing character of the terminal group leads to a more pronounced donor-to-acceptor intramolecular charge transfer (ICT). In addition, the dyes possess the largest 2PA cross sections in the near infrared region (NIR) and display maximum two-photon absorption cross sections within the narrow wavelength range from 950 to 970nm and BL3 exhibits a large nonlinear refractive index coefficient and possesses very large values of the real part of the cubic hyperpolarizability χ(3) at 960nm. Furthermore, the initial density functional theory (DFT) and time-dependent density functional theory (TD-DFT) calculations provide reasonable explanations for their absorption spectra, meanwhile we used the Lippert–Mataga equation to evaluate the dipole moment changes of the dyes with photoexcitation, the results are corresponding with linear and nonlinear optical properties of the dyes.

Emerging advances in nanomedicine with engineered gold nanostructures

Gold nanostructures possess unique characteristics that enable their use as contrast agents, as therapeutic entities, and as scaffolds to adhere functional molecules, therapeutic cargo, and targeting ligands. Due to their ease of synthesis, straightforward surface functionalization, and non-toxicity, gold nanostructures have emerged as powerful nanoagents for cancer detection and treatment. This comprehensive review summarizes the progress made in nanomedicine with gold nanostructures (1) as probes for various bioimaging techniques including dark-field, one-photon and two-photon fluorescence, photothermal optical coherence tomography, photoacoustic tomography, positron emission tomography, and surface-enhanced Raman scattering based imaging, (2) as therapeutic components for photothermal therapy, gene and drug delivery, and radiofrequency ablation, and (3) as a theranostic platform to simultaneously achieve both cancer detection and treatment. Distinct from other published reviews, this article also discusses the recent advances of gold nanostructures as contrast agents and therapeutic actuators for inflammatory diseases including atherosclerotic plaque and arthritis. For each of the topics discussed above, the fundamental principles and progress made in the past five years are discussed. The review concludes with a detailed future outlook discussing the challenges in using gold nanostructures, cellular trafficking, and translational considerations that are imperative for rapid clinical viability of plasmonic nanostructures, as well as the significance of emerging technologies such as Fano resonant gold nanostructures in nanomedicine.

Synthesis and two-photon up-conversion sensing property of pyridinylbenzothiadiazole-based chromophores

New two-photon up-conversion fluorescence (TPF) sensors, containing triphenylamine or carbazole as donor (D) and flanked pyridinylbenzothiadiazole as acceptor (A) to form D–π–An(n=1, 2 or 3) architecture, were synthesized and characterized. The investigation correlated molecular structure (acceptor number) with linear absorption, one-photon fluorescence (OPF) and two-photon fluorescence (TPF) detecting Cu2+, Ni2+, Hg2+ and Ag+ was carried out. Sensors containing more acceptor groups were found to exhibit greater sensitivity to both absorption and fluorescence detection. A comparison between OPF and TPF responses to the given metal ion (Cu2+) showed that the sensitivity of TPF quenching is larger than that of OPF quenching. This strongly supports the idea that pyridinylbenzothiadiazole-based chromophores with more acceptor groups possess potential application as two-photon up-conversion sensors.

Hydrosoluble two-photon absorbing materials: A series of sulfonated organic inner salts in biological imaging application

Designed to achieve high two-photon absorptivity dyes, a novel series of D-π-A type hydrosoluble inner salts (SL1, SL2, SL3 and SL4) based on pyridinium have been synthesized and fully characterized. Photophysical properties including linear absorption, one-photon excited fluorescence and two-photon absorption properties were systematically investigated. These results show that there is a shift in the absorption and emission maxima with variation of solvent polarity. Furthermore, the chromophore SL4 shows the strongest intensity of two-photon excited fluorescence among the four chromophores and the largest two-photon absorption cross-section in the near infrared region (∼960 nm), indicating the steric bulk of the electron-donating terminal group plays an important role in two-photon absorption behavior. In addition, SL4 displays two-photon absorption activity when dissolved in water, which can be effectively used in two-photon bioimaging for its reasonable two-photon absorption cross-section. SL4-labeled cells revealed a distinct vesicular localization, most likely representing lysosomal compartments.

Dynamic and Reversible Fluorescence Imaging of Superoxide Anion Fluctuations in Live Cells and in Vivo

Overgeneration of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is closely associated with cellular damage and diseases. As superoxide anion (O2(•-)) is the precursor of other ROS, exploring O2(•-) fluctuations in cells and in vivo is of great significance. To address this critical need, we have developed a novel reversible fluorescent probe with one-photon and two-photon fluorescence properties, which is well suited for monitoring O2(•-) fluxes selectively and dynamically. Imaging results substantiate dynamic and reversible fluorescence responses of this probe to intracellular O2(•-) under apoptotic stimuli. Moreover, this probe can conveniently visualize changes in O2(•-) concentration during reperfusion injury in hepatocytes, zebrafish, and mice, by means of one-photon or two-photon imaging according to depths of various samples. The present study provides a powerful fluorescent imaging tool for dynamic tracking of O2(•-) in live cells and in vivo.

Layered Dinitrostilbene-Based Molecular Solids with Tunable Micro/Nanostructures and the Reversible Fluorescent Response to Explosives

The ability to modulate and control the fluorescence properties of molecular solids at the micro/nanoscale is important to develop high-performance optoelectronic materials and sensors. Here we report the tunable one-photon and two-photon fluorescence as well as micro/nanostructures of dinitrostilbene-based (DNS) chromophore by the formation of layered multicomponent crystals with guanidinium cation (GD) through hydrogen-bonding assembly. The as-prepared GD2DNS bulk crystal shows a red-shift emission as well as enhanced photoluminescence quantum yield and fluorescence lifetime compared with those of the Na2DNS sample, which is related to the structural transfer of DNS from staggered arrangement to parallel fashion within the crystal. Periodic density functional theoretical calculations further show that the introduction of different cationic units can modify the frontier orbital distribution and electronic structure of DNS anions within the multicomponent crystals. Moreover, one-dimensional GD2DNS nanobel...

Computational Design of Two-Photon Fluorescent Probes for a Zinc Ion Based on a Salen Ligand

A two-photon fluorescent probe has become a critical tool in biology and medicine owing to its capability of imaging intact tissue for a long period of time, such as in two-photon fluorescence microscopy (TPM). In this context, a series of Salen-based zinc-ion bioimaging reagents that were designed based on an intramolecular charge-transfer mechanism were studied through the quantum-chemical method. The increase of one-photon absorption and fluorescence emission wavelength and the reduction of the oscillator strength upon coordination with a zinc ion reveal that they are fluorescent bioimaging reagents used for ratiometric detection. When the Salen ligand is incorporated with Zn(2+), the value of the two-photon absorption (TPA) cross-section (δmax) will decrease, and most of the ligands and complexes exhibit a TPA peak in the near-infrared spectral region. That is, a substituent at the end of the ligand can influence the luminescence property, besides increasing solubility. In addition, the effect of an end-substituted position on the TPA property was considered, such as ortho and meta substitution. The detailed investigations will provide a theoretical basis to synthesize zinc-ion-responsive two-photon fluorescent bioimaging reagents as powerful tools for TPM and biological detection in vivo.

Brain Tumor Imaging: Imaging Brain Metastasis Using a Brain-Metastasizing Breast Adenocarcinoma

Brain metastases from primary or secondary breast tumors are difficult to model in the mouse. When metastatic breast cancer cell lines are injected directly into the arterial circulation, only a small fraction of cells enter the brain to form metastatic foci. To study the molecular and cellular mechanisms of brain metastasis, we have transfected MB-231BR, a brain-homing derivative of a human breast adenocarcinoma line MDA-MB-231, with the yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) variant Venus. MB-231BR selectively enters the brain after intracardiac injection into the arterial circulation, resulting in accumulation of fluorescent foci of cells in the brain that can be viewed by standard fluorescence imaging procedures. We describe how to perform the intracardiac injection and the parameters used to quantify brain metastasis in brain sections by standard one-photon fluorescence imaging. The disadvantage of this model is that the kinetics of growth over time cannot be determined in the same animal. In addition, the injection technique does not permit precise placement of tumor cells within the brain. This model is useful for determining the molecular determinants of brain tumor metastasis.

Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman Scattering Microscopy for High Speed Non- Staining Biomolecular Imaging

Vibrational microscopy (Raman microscopy and infrared microscopy), which observes molecular vibrations, gives us the information of molecular species without staining because the observed signals are originated from intrinsic molecules of a cell. However, infrared radiation is absorbed with water, and the long wavelength (3-10 μm) limits the spatial resolution to several micrometers. Spontaneous emission of Raman scattering is quite feeble, and the Raman scattering often overlaps with one-photon fluorescence from a specimen. Coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) microscopy, which is one of the nonlinear Raman microscopy, is a method to overcome those problems. In this review, present system of CARS microscopy, the methods of background rejection, and applications are introduced.

One and Two Photon Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy on Proteins in Glucose Solutions

Cryopreservation is a powerful technology with many applications in biomedical fields from organ preservation to cellular research. Simple sugars such as glucose and fructose are among the most widely used cryopreserving agents, yet despite their widespread use, the mechanism through which sugars protect cells on the molecular level is poorly understood. The vitrification model posits that the role of sugars are merely to inhibit ice formation altogether. The water replacement model predicts sugars preferentially bind to the surfaces of protein forming a protective layer against the denaturing ice formation. Under this paradigm, one would expect the hydrodynamic radius of diffusing protein to increase with increasing sugar concentration. In order to test this hypothesis, we have developed both one-photon and two-photon fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) to measure the hydrodynamic radius of fluorescent particles in glucose solutions. The two-photon technique was developed to investigate tryptophan-containing proteins. However, to date, we have only succeeded in measuring the diffusion of reasonably large, Avidin-coated polystyrene spheres that possess sufficient fluorescence to be reliably detected. Work is continuing on using this technique to study the diffusion of the protein hemocyanin. Given these difficulties with the limited brightness of tryptophan, the one-photon FCS setup is being used to investigate green fluorescent protein (GFP), a much smaller, but considerably brighter, fluorophore.This work was supported through funding from National Institutes of Health (grant #1R01EB009644-01).

Self-assembled triphenylamine-hexaazatriphenylene two-photon absorption dyes

This paper reports the self-assembling and two-photon absorption natures of donor–acceptor molecules, tri(phenanthro)hexaazatriphenylene (TPHAT-C) and tri(phenanthrolino)hexaazatriphenylene (TPHAT-N), bearing six electron-donating moieties. In the 1H NMR spectra, a line-broadening effect, arising from self-assembled aggregation was observed. Several hundred nanometer scale aggregates were detected in dynamic light scattering. The one-dimensional aggregation of the TPHAT molecules was indicated by the concentration dependence in UV/vis one-photon absorption and one-photon excited fluorescence spectroscopies. An enhancement of the two-photon absorption cross-section was observed in the self-assembled TPHAT system. The order of the two-photon absorption nature is in agreement with the order of the aggregative nature.

Anti‐Stokes fluorescence from endogenously formed protoporphyrin IX – Implications for clinical multiphoton diagnostics

Multiphoton imaging based on two-photon excitation is making its way into the clinics, particularly for skin cancer diagnostics. It has been suggested that endogenously formed protoporphyrin IX (PpIX) induced by aminolevulinic acid or methylaminolevulinate can be applied to improve tumor contrast, in connection to imaging of tissue autofluorescence. However, previous reports are limited to cell studies and data from tissue are scarce. No report shows conclusive evidence that endogenously formed PpIX increases tumor contrast when performing multiphoton imaging in the clinical situation. We here demonstrate by spectral analysis that two-photon excitation of endogenously formed PpIX does not provide additional contrast in superficial basal cell carcinomas. In fact, the PpIX signal is overshadowed by the autofluorescent background. The results show that PpIX should be excited at a wavelength giving rise to one-photon anti-Stokes fluorescence, to overcome the autofluorescent background. Thus, this study reports on a plausible method, which can be implemented for clinical investigations on endogenously formed PpIX using multiphoton microscopy.Three-dimensional multiphoton microscopy images obtained from a superficial basal cell carcinoma illustrating higher porphyrin contrast when anti-stokes excitation (710 nm) is used compared to two-photon excitation (810 nm).

Near-infrared-emitting squaraine dyes with high 2PA cross-sections for multiphoton fluorescence imaging.

Designed to achieve high two-photon absorptivity, new near-infrared (NIR) emitting squaraine dyes, (E)-2-(1-(2-(2-methoxyethoxy)ethyl)-5-(3,4,5-trimethoxystyryl)-1H-pyrrol-2-yl)-4-(1-(2-(2-methoxyethoxy)ethyl)-5-(3,4,5-trimethoxystyryl)-2H-pyrrolium-2-ylidene)-3-oxocyclobut-1-enolate (1) and (Z)-2-(4-(dibutylamino)-2-hydroxyphenyl)-4-(4-(dibutyliminio)-2-hydroxycyclohexa-2,5-dienylidene)-3-oxocyclobut-1-enolate (2), were synthesized and characterized. Their linear photophysical properties were investigated via UV-visible absorption spectroscopy and fluorescence spectroscopy in various solvents, while their nonlinear photophysical properties were investigated using a combination of two-photon induced fluorescence and open aperture z-scan methods. Squaraine 1 exhibited a high two-photon absorption (2PA) cross-section (δ2PA), ∼20 000 GM at 800 nm, and high photostability with the photochemical decomposition quantum yield one order of magnitude lower than Cy 5, a commercially available pentamethine cyanine NIR dye. The cytotoxicity of the squaraine dyes were evaluated in HCT 116 and COS 7 cell lines to assess the potential of these probes for biomedical imaging. The viability of both cell lines was maintained above 80% at dye concentrations up to 30 μM, indicating good biocompatibility of the probes. Finally, one-photon fluorescence microscopy (1PFM) and two-photon fluorescence microscopy (2PFM) imaging was accomplished after incubation of micelle-encapsulated squaraine probes with HCT 116 and COS 7 cells, demonstrating their potential in 2PFM bioimaging.

Nonlinear refraction and nonlinear absorption of CdSe0.3S0.7/ZnS quantum dots

Nonlinear optical properties of CdSe0.3S0.7/ZnS quantum dots(QDs) were investigated by Z-scan technique using the Nd:YAG laser second harmonic radiation (λ=532nm, t=35ps). The Z-scan results show that the CdSe0.3S0.7 QDs have strong reverse saturable absorption(RSA). Based on the linear absorption spectrum and one-photon resonant fluorescence spectrum, it is reasonable for us to infer that the nonlinear absorption arises from free carrier absorption(FCA). Based on standard Z-scan theory, we obtain the FCA cross section and nonlinear refractive index of CdSe0.3S0.7/ZnS QDs. These QDs have average absorption cross section of 2.8×10−16cm2 and nonlinear refractive index on order of 10−7esu. The strong nonlinear absorption and large nonlinear refractive index perhaps allow them to be applicable in the optoelectronic field.

Optimum quantum dot size for highly efficient fluorescence bioimaging

Semiconductor quantum dots of few nanometers have demonstrated a great potential for bioimaging. The size determines the emitted color, but it is also expected to play an important role in the image brightness. In this work, the size dependence of the fluorescence quantum yield of the highly thermal sensitive CdTe quantum dots has been systematically investigated by thermal lens spectroscopy. It has been found that an optimum quantum yield is reached for 3.8-nm quantum dots. The presence of this optimum size has been corroborated in both one-photon excited fluorescence experiments and two-photon fluorescence microscopy of dot-incubated cancer cells. Combination of quantum yield and fluorescence decay time measurements supports that the existence of this optimum size emerges from the interplay between the frequency-dependent radiative emission rate and the size-dependent coupling strength between bulk excitons and surface trapping states.

On the analyses of fluorescence depolarisation data in the presence of electronic energy migration. Part I: Theory and general description

A new and general procedure is described for a detailed analysis of time-resolved fluorescence depolarisation data in the presence of electronic energy migration. An isotropic ensemble of bifluorophoric molecules (D(1)-R-D(2)) has been studied to demonstrate its utility. Intramolecular donor-donor energy migration occurs between the two donor groups (D), which are covalently connected to a rigid linker group (R). These groups undergo restricted reorientational motions with respect to the R group. The analysis of depolarisation data basically involves the search for best-fit parameters which describe the local reorientational motions, the intermolecular D(1)-D(2) distance, as well as the mutual orientations of the donors. For this, the analysis is partly performed on the Fourier domain and the best-fit parameters are determined by using an approach based on a Genetic Algorithm. The energy migration process has been described by using Monte Carlo simulations and an extended Förster theory (EFT). It is found that the EFT provides the least time-consuming computational method. Since one-photon and two-photon excited fluorescence experiments can be applied for energy migration studies, a general and unified theoretical formulation is given.

Effect of genipin crosslinking on the optical spectral properties and structures of collagen hydrogels.

Genipin, a natural cross-linking reagent extracted from the fruits of Gardenia jasminoides, can be effectively employed in tissue engineering applications due to its low cytotoxicity and high biocompatibility. The cross-linking of collagen hydrogels with genipin was followed with one-photon fluorescence spectroscopy, second harmonic generation, fluorescence and transmission electron microscopy. The incubation with genipin induced strong auto-fluorescence within the collagen hydrogels. The fluorescence emission maximum of the fluorescent adducts formed by genipin exhibit a strong dependence on the excitation wavelength. The emission maximum is at 630 nm when we excite the cross-linked samples with 590 nm light and shifts to 462 nm when we use 400 nm light instead. The fluorescence imaging studies show that genipin induces formation of long aggregated fluorescent strands throughout the depth of samples. The second harmonic generation (SHG) imaging studies suggest that genipin partially disaggregates 10 μm "fiberlike" collagen structures because of the formation of these fluorescent cross-links. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) studies reveal that genipin largely eliminates collagen's characteristic native fibrillar striations. Our study is the first one to nondestructively follow and identify the structure within collagen hydrogels in situ and to sample structures formed on both micro- and nanoscales. Our findings suggest that genipin cross-linking of collagen follows a complex mechanism and this compound modifies the structure within the collagen hydrogels in both micro- and nanoscale.