On-site Technology Research Articles

Mitigating antimicrobial resistance through effective hospital wastewater management in low- and middle-income countries

Hospital wastewater (HWW) is a significant environmental and public health threat, containing high levels of pollutants such as antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB), antibiotic-resistant genes (ARGs), antibiotics, disinfectants, and heavy metals. This threat is of particular concern in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), where untreated effluents are often used for irrigating vegetables crops, leading to direct and indirect human exposure. Despite being a potential hotspot for the spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), existing HWW treatment systems in LMICs primarily target conventional pollutants and lack effective standards for monitoring the removal of ARB and ARGs. Consequently, untreated or inadequately treated HWW continues to disseminate ARB and ARGs, exacerbating the risk of AMR proliferation. Addressing this requires targeted interventions, including cost-effective treatment solutions, robust AMR monitoring protocols, and policy-driven strategies tailored to LMICs. This perspective calls for a paradigm shift in HWW management in LMIC, emphasizing the broader implementation of onsite treatment systems, which are currently rare. Key recommendations include developing affordable and contextually adaptable technologies for eliminating ARB and ARGs and enforcing local regulations for AMR monitoring and control in wastewater. Addressing these challenges is essential for protecting public health, preventing the environmental spread of resistance, and contributing to a global effort to preserve the efficacy of antibiotics. Recommendations include integrating scalable onsite technologies, leveraging local knowledge, and implementing comprehensive AMR-focused regulatory frameworks.

Green Roof Systems for Rainwater and Sewage Treatment

Green roof systems are regarded as a viable solution for mitigating urban environmental challenges and offering a multitude of environmental benefits. Currently, green roofs are increasingly being utilized for the management of rainwater runoff and wastewater. The integration of decentralized rainwater and sewage on-site treatment technology with urban green buildings is being gradually promoted. Green roofs can also be considered as a form of decentralized rainwater and sewage on-site technology, which holds great potential for widespread adoption in the future. Several studies have suggested that green roofs may serve as a potential source of pollutants; however, there are also studies that clearly demonstrate the efficient removal of nutrients and organic pollutants by green roofs. This article critically examines the existing literature on water treatment aspects associated with green roofs and elucidates their classification and operational mechanisms. Through an analysis of previous research cases, it becomes evident that both substrate and vegetation play a significant role in influencing the treatment performance of green roofs. By designing and configuring appropriate substrate and vegetation, green roofs can play a pivotal role in the purification of water quality. Finally, a brief outlook is presented for the future research directions of green roofs, with the anticipation that green roofs will feature more innovative and environmentally friendly designs, as well as expanded prospects for application.

Multidimensional assessment of a Nature-based Solution for decentralized greywater treatment in Costa Rica

In Costa Rica, water supply networks provide water to over 94% of the country's population. However, only an estimated 14% of wastewater receives proper treatment. The lack of centralized sanitation infrastructure has resulted in the use of septic tanks and the discharge of untreated greywater into rivers, causing environmental degradation of surface waters. Retrofitting conventional centralized sewer networks and treatment plants into the existing urbanization presents extensive social, economic, and technical challenges. Nature-based Solutions (NbS) for greywater treatment can reduce pollutant loads and improve the environmental status of water resources and represent an opportunity for technical leapfrogging towards sustainable, decentralized on-site treatment and reuse. However, the implementation of NbS in urban areas poses significant challenges due to the complex interplay of social, regulatory, and economic factors. Specifically, for on-site greywater treatment systems, meeting several criteria, including efficient pollutant removal, affordability, and public acceptance is essential for successful implementation and operation. This study assesses the technical, socio-economic, and political-regulatory dimensions relevant to implementing NbS for decentralized greywater treatment. To conduct this research, a Real-World Lab was established in the Great Metropolitan Area of Costa Rica, employing a transdisciplinary approach. This approach provided a physical space and societal context to integrate site-specific aspects and understand the various factors that influence the implementation and upscaling of NbS. As part of our methodology, we analyzed the water quality parameters and treatment performance of a NbS prototype for decentralized greywater treatment. Within the Real-World Lab framework, we conducted interviews, surveys, and field observations to investigate socio-economic and political-regulatory aspects. Our results highlight the technical potential of the NbS prototype. However, the limitation lies in the governance scheme and financing mechanisms required for upscaling the NbS as a decentralized on-site technology across the country. Our multidimensional assessment provides insights into the requirements for widespread implementation of NbS, applicable to other regions facing similar retrofitting sanitation challenges.

Investment of hydrogen refueling station based on compound real options

As the development of hydrogen refueling stations (HRS) is key to the hydrogen industry, it is necessary to study the investment feasibility for potential investors in order to stimulate its investment. We view the HRS investment as a two-stage decision-making process, distinguishing characteristics of off-site HRS from those of on-site HRS. Investors can first decide whether or when to invest in an off-site HRS, and then can accordingly decide whether or when to upgrade from an existing off-site HRS to an on-site HRS, by retrofitting off-site HRS with on-site hydrogen production device. We select natural gas reforming as the technology of on-site hydrogen production device, not only because natural gas reforming is cheaper and maturer, but also because this type of retrofit has been applied in a real case. Since the investment in HRS entails multiple uncertainties, we use a compound real options approach for conducting an appraisal of HRS investment. Accordingly, we use the Chinese case to present a new perspective to the sequential analysis of HRS investment decision-making. Four various scenarios are set for a case study, including one benchmark scenario reflecting the current Chinese hydrogen policies, and three comparative scenarios reflecting potentially improved policies, such as increasing operational subsidy, implementing preferential taxation and stimulating demand. The results show the current scenario is not beneficial to invest in HRS building on the proposed analytical framework and the data collected from the case of China. Furthermore, the increase in demand plays the leading role in improving the probability of HRS investment, followed by the implementation of preferential taxation and increasing operational subsidies. Additionally, the on-site HRS shows its superiority over off-site HRS, because all scenarios suggest upgrading to on-site HRS should be executed immediately once the initial off-site HRS is constructed. Therefore, in the context of Chinese hydrogen market and the selected on-site technology of natural gas reforming, it is necessary to create a more favorable business environment for the layout of on-site HRS.

Main Factors Determining the Scale-Up Effectiveness of Mycoremediation for the Decontamination of Aliphatic Hydrocarbons in Soil.

Soil contamination constitutes a significant threat to the health of soil ecosystems in terms of complexity, toxicity, and recalcitrance. Among all contaminants, aliphatic petroleum hydrocarbons (APH) are of particular concern due to their abundance and persistence in the environment and the need of remediation technologies to ensure their removal in an environmentally, socially, and economically sustainable way. Soil remediation technologies presently available on the market to tackle soil contamination by petroleum hydrocarbons (PH) include landfilling, physical treatments (e.g., thermal desorption), chemical treatments (e.g., oxidation), and conventional bioremediation. The first two solutions are costly and energy-intensive approaches. Conversely, bioremediation of on-site excavated soil arranged in biopiles is a more sustainable procedure. Biopiles are engineered heaps able to stimulate microbial activity and enhance biodegradation, thus ensuring the removal of organic pollutants. This soil remediation technology is currently the most environmentally friendly solution available on the market, as it is less energy-intensive and has no detrimental impact on biological soil functions. However, its major limitation is its low removal efficiency, especially for long-chain hydrocarbons (LCH), compared to thermal desorption. Nevertheless, the use of fungi for remediation of environmental contaminants retains the benefits of bioremediation treatments, including low economic, social, and environmental costs, while attaining removal efficiencies similar to thermal desorption. Mycoremediation is a widely studied technology at lab scale, but there are few experiences at pilot scale. Several factors may reduce the overall efficiency of on-site mycoremediation biopiles (mycopiles), and the efficiency detected in the bench scale. These factors include the bioavailability of hydrocarbons, the selection of fungal species and bulking agents and their application rate, the interaction between the inoculated fungi and the indigenous microbiota, soil properties and nutrients, and other environmental factors (e.g., humidity, oxygen, and temperature). The identification of these factors at an early stage of biotreatability experiments would allow the application of this on-site technology to be refined and fine-tuned. This review brings together all mycoremediation work applied to aliphatic petroleum hydrocarbons (APH) and identifies the key factors in making mycoremediation effective. It also includes technological advances that reduce the effect of these factors, such as the structure of mycopiles, the application of surfactants, and the control of environmental factors.

Leachate management in medium- and small-sized sanitary landfills: a Greek case study

The sustainable management of landfill leachates remains a matter of important concern in many countries. We used as case study a medium-sized Greek landfill, and we initially investigated the performance of the existing secondary leachate treatment system. The activated sludge process removed chemical oxygen demand (COD), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), NH4-N, and PO4-P by 55%, 84%, 94%, and 14%, respectively, but the effluents did not meet the legislation requirements for discharge or reuse. Afterwards, different management options of these effluents (co-treatment with sewage in the centralized treatment plant, onsite tertiary treatment with reverse osmosis, granular activated carbon (GAC), ozonation, photo-Fenton, or constructed wetlands) were evaluated regarding their operational costs and environmental footprint. The use of constructed wetlands presented the lower operational cost, energy requirements, and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, not exceeding 21.5 kg CO2eq/day. On the other hand, the power consumption and the GHG emissions of the other on-site technologies ranged from 0.37 kWh/m3 and 5.56 kg CO2eq/day (use of GAC) to 39.19 kWh/m3 and 588.6 kg CO2eq/day (use of ozonation), respectively. The co-treatment of the leachates with municipal wastewater required 0.6 kWh/m3 and emitted 30.18 kg CO2eq/day. For achieving zero-discharge of the treated leachates, a system consisting of constructed wetlands and evaporation ponds in series was designed.

Smart positioning: how smart technologies can increase the attractiveness of heritage tourism destinations? The case of a small-scale Hungarian heritage city

ABSTRACT Small-scale heritage towns usually face fierce competition from surrounding destinations, particularly in peripheral rural areas where tourism holds important possibilities for regional development. This study examines on-site smart tourism technology as a tool to increase attractiveness and differentiation of heritage destinations using examples of Hungarian destinations. The research seeks to answer the question whether a small-scale heritage destination can become a more attractive destination due to technology from the perspective of potential tourists. The paper analyzes quantitative data collected from 537 potential tourists. Principal component analysis was used to identify the factors considering attractive and differential on-site technologies. A regression model was created to examine how these factors affect the potential tourist's decision-making: whether heritage towns with smart on-site tools are too similar to towns that do not use such technologies. Three factors of on-site technologies have been identified: digital sightseeing, smart attractions, and smart infrastructure. According to the regression model, digital sightseeing is the key pull factor, but smart attractions and smart infrastructure also have a positive effect in small towns. The study presents the first empirical research on the effect of smart technology on positioning small-size heritage towns based on demand-side research.

Operations of data centers with onsite renewables considering greenhouse gas emissions

In a highly technology-dependent society, processing large amounts of data has become essential, resulting in a growing number of data centers. The global data center industry accounts for a significant proportion of the world’s energy consumption. A partial or total transition of the energy sources that power the operation of data centers to cleaner energy, particularly onsite renewable technologies, will help to achieve the greenhouse gas emission reduction goals established in international agreements. However, integrating such technologies is difficult due to the intermittency and availability of renewable sources. Nevertheless, temporal and geographical flexibility for processing part of the data centers’ workload provides an opportunity to efficiently integrate these renewable energy sources. In this paper, we develop an operational scheme for a network of interconnected data centers with a significant electricity supply from onsite technologies consisting of (i) an optimal job migration and scheduling policy for data centers to match their operation and the availability of renewable energy under an emissions cap-and-trade program; (ii) an energy management system to control the data centers’ onsite renewable and grid energy resources; and (iii) a robust optimization approach to account for the intermittency of the renewables and to identify the optimal migration and scheduling policies under the worst-case scenario. A case study is carried out to assess the economic and environmental impacts. The results indicate that the installation of onsite technologies and an optimal migration policy reduce the operational costs and the greenhouse gas emissions of the networks of data centers.

Reclamation Potential of Onsite Wastewater Post-Treatment with Microalgae: Chemical Elements Perspective

Algae-based wastewater treatment is a promising technology with various applications for excess biomass such as biofertilizer production or valuable elements extraction. The benefits of the technology have been discussed for larger wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), but the use of microalgae in decentralized wastewater treatment has been barely reported. The current study screens the possible resource recovery potential of onsite technology, which adds algae-based post-treatment to the conventional biological treatment of domestic wastewater. The effluent from the onsite sequencing batch reactor (SBR) of a household was further processed in laboratory conditions using an SBR technology with two local monocultures of algae—Klebsormidium nitens (Kützing) Lokhorst and Tetradesmus obliquus (Turpin) M. J. Wynne. The decant and the generated algal biomass were analyzed in terms of their element content. The post-treated effluent has a slightly better quality for irrigation purposes than the effluent of the onsite treatment facility—up to 1.6 times increased concentration for macro-elements and up to 1.9 times for micro elements. However, the generated algal biomass shows promising potential for re-use as a fertilizing agent since it contains valuable macro- and micro-elements and the heavy (hazardous) metal content is considerably lower than the limiting values in the current European and national legislations. The K. nitens strain may attract interest since it accumulates valuable metals such as chromium (36 mg/kgDS), nickel (83 mg/kgDS), and silver (0.7 mg/kgDS) that can be derived from the biomass and turn the technology to a circular one.

Impact of technology use on workforce performance and information access in the construction industry

For decades, labor shortage has been a consistent struggle in the construction industry. At the same time, technological innovations have played a central role in the growth and development of an increasingly diverse construction industry. Existing research indicates that technological adoption is crucial for enhancing project productivity. Despite the importance and potential benefits of technology use, no research has yet studied how technology use on-site impact the worker’s performance and the difficulty of the process to access needed information. The objective of this paper is to analyze and understand the impact of on-site technology use on 1) the self-evaluated performance record (including safety, attendance, quality, productivity, and initiative), and 2) the difficulty of the process to access information, of construction workers and frontline supervisors in the construction industry. To achieve the research objective, 2,780 construction craft workers and frontline supervisors were surveyed using an online questionnaire. The survey participants were asked to self-evaluate 1) their work personal performance record (including safety, attendance, quality, productivity, and initiative), and 2) the difficulty of the process to receive or get access to information. The participants were additionally asked to specify whether different listed information technologies, material technologies, and equipment technologies are used on site. The collected data was then analyzed. Key findings indicate that the on-site use of several technologies had statistically significant impact in increased worker performance and information access. This study contributes to the body of knowledge by empirically quantifying the impact of on-site technology use on worker performance and information access in the construction industry.

The effect of science and technology parks on tenant firms: a literature review

Science and technology parks (STPs) are non-spontaneous agglomerations aimed at encouraging the formation and growth of on-site technology and knowledge-based firms. STPs have diffused worldwide, attracting significant, and often public, investment. However, there are contrasting evidence and insights on the effectiveness of these local development, technology and innovation policy tools. This paper provides a comprehensive and systematic review of the STP literature (221 papers, 1987–2021), focusing especially on quantitative papers aimed at assessing the park effect on tenant’s performance. We perform an in-depth quantitative analyses, which allows us to go beyond the inconclusiveness reported in previous review papers, showing that the likelihood of finding positive STP effects increases considerably with sample size. We discuss the limitations of this literature and offer some suggestions for future research.

Tackling Health Disparities in Radiology: A Practical Conceptual Framework.

Tackling Health Disparities in Radiology: A Practical Conceptual Framework.

Study on Enhanced Oil Recovery Technology of LH2500 New Salt-Resistant Polymer

In order to explore a new way to improve the development efficiency of polymer flooding in sewage system, the laboratory evaluation of LH2500 new salt-resistant polymer was carried out, and the field test was carried out in the middle of Xing 6 area in Daqing Oilfield. The indoor results show that compared with the 25 million polymer of Daqing Refining & Chemical Co., Ltd. under the same concentration of the cleaning system, the viscosity of LH2500 salt-resistant polymer is about 29% higher, the residual resistance is more than 10%, and the dynamic adsorption capacity is more than 5%. Increase the recovery rate by 4 percentage points. In the field application process, through optimizing the design of the oil displacement scheme of salt-resistant polymer and establishing the on-site dynamic tracking and adjustment technology, the development effect of the test area is remarkable, with the lowest water cut falling below 80% and the maximum drop reaching 15.6 percentage points, with the low value period as long as 22 months, the staged enhanced oil recovery rate reaching 13.5 percentage points, and the ultimate enhanced oil recovery rate is expected to reach more than 16 percentage points. Compared with ordinary polymer blocks, the recovery ratio in the test area is increased by more than 4 percentage points. At the same time, due to the dilution of sewage system, the excess sewage in oil field is effectively alleviated, and the high and stable yield of environmental protection is realized.

Extent of Application of Fourth Industrial Revolution Technologies to Enhance Tourism Sustainability: A Case of Selected Tourism Operators in Victoria Falls

This study sought to analyse the extent of the application of Fourth Industrial Revolution techniques (4 IR) in the tourism sector of Zimbabwe using the Victoria Falls as a case study. The objective of the study was to analyse the effectiveness of 4IR technologies on the competitiveness amongst tourist operators and to determine strategies that could be adapted to improve the use of 4IR technological trends. A sample of 96 tourist respondents were used in the study, as well as 30 tour operators. The study also used probability sampling through systematic random sampling for tourists and non-probability sampling through random sampling for tour operators. The findings clearly showed that pre-travel technologies used by tour operators have enhanced tourists choice of patronage. However, on-site technologies used by tour operators were limited acording to tourists who indicated that they were not satiesfied with the extent to which on-site technologies were applied. The reasons behind slow adoption of 4IR technologies by most operators emanated from lack of managerial skills, lack of expertise and lack of desire to innovate. The study recommended that operators should urgently adopt the use of artificial intelligence, they should budget towards technological upgrading as well as installation of cyber crime security systems. Organisations should also invest in digital transformation.

Comparative study between conventional and mechanical technology on fecal sludge treatment plants (FSTP) in Indonesia

In pursuit of access to wastewater services to reach the target of 100%, it is undeniable that the non-sewer system/on-site system should continue to be developed. The non-sewer system provides low-cost options, making access to wastewater infrastructure more affordable. As a further treatment of the fecal sludge produced from on-site technology such as septic tank, FSTP (Faecal Sludge Treatment Plant) is needed. This study was conducted on 4 FSTPs in Java Island, namely 2 conventional system FSTPs (Keputih FSTP, Surabaya and Betoyoguci FSTP, Gresik) and 2 mechanical system FSTPs (Duri Kosambi FSTP, Jakarta and Sumur Batu FSTP, Bekasi). The research was conducted by comparing performance indicators which are collection, treatment, human resources, and cost-efficiency, representing development priority aspects. Analysis of the development strategy was carried out by SWOT analysis. Based on performance indicator comparison, Duri Kosambi FSTP has the highest collection efficiency among the others. Treatment efficiency ranging around 60%, and human resources efficiency in all FSTPs ranging at 80%. Duri Kosambi FSTP has an acceptable cost efficiency level, while the rest are still dissatisfactory. Development strategy derived from SWOT analysis should include an effort to do scheduled desludging, partial investment from government, adjusting tariff, and optimizing FSTP capacity.

Case Study on the Stability Control of Broken Surrounding Rock in Roadway Excavation on the Edge of a Collapsed Stope Area

Predicting and controlling the collapse of surrounding rock (especially broken rock masses) in underground chambers is an important topic in mining and geotechnical engineering. Based on an example, this paper introduces a case study of surrounding rock stability control technology in stope mining around abandoned areas. Based on on-site coring, mechanical properties of rock samples, and on-site grouting reinforcement technology, the TRT6000 advanced geological prediction system was used to predict the stability status of the surrounding rock of the underground chamber. AUTODYNA software was used to build a dynamic coupling model for numerical simulation prediction and optimization of blasting parameters and to reveal the dynamic variation in the surrounding rock. The dynamic failure process of the surrounding rock of the chamber before and after optimization of the blasting parameters is simulated, and the deformation characteristics and damage and acoustic emission characteristics of the surrounding rock are clearly shown. The surrounding rock failure first appeared around the surface of the underground chamber because of the high stress concentration around the surface of the chamber after blasting; with the interaction between the explosive gas and the rock mass, the damaged area further propagated into the external rock, eventually leading to a large damage area. At the same time, there is a large tensile failure in the rock, resulting in expansion and rupture around the underground chamber. Finally, the 3D laser scanning method is used to verify the superiority of the optimized blasting initiation sequence. The new edge hole detonation sequence can effectively improve the blasting vibration and successfully control the further damage of the surrounding rock of the underground chamber, thus proving the edge hole drug pack. Moreover, the initiation mode of the delay stage of the side hole charge is determined. This study provides a useful reference for the stability control of surrounding rock in mining in mining areas.

Suitability of the Decentralised Wastewater Treatment Effluent for Agricultural Use: Decision Support System Approach

The decentralised wastewater treatment system (DEWATS) is an onsite sanitation technology that can be used in areas away from municipal sewerage networks. The discharge of effluent emanating from DEWATS into water bodies may cause pollution. Agricultural use of the effluent may improve crop yields and quality thereby contributing to food security in low-income communities. There are drawbacks to the agricultural use of treated wastewater. Therefore, the study assessed the crop, environmental and health risks when irrigating with anaerobic filter (AF) effluent using the Decision Support System (DSS) of the South African Water Quality Guideline model, in four South African agroecological regions, three soil types, two irrigation systems and three different crops. The model was parameterised using AF effluent characterisation data and simulated for 45 years. The model predicted that there are no negative impacts for using AF effluent on soil quality parameters (root zone salinity, soil permeability and oxidisable carbon loading), leaf scorching and irrigation equipment. The problems were reported for nutrient loading (N and P) in maize and microbial contamination in cabbage and lettuce. It was recommended that the effluent should be diluted when used for maize production and advanced treatment should be explored to allow unrestricted agricultural use.

Study on the model of domestic sewage resource utilization

In recent years, with the degree of urban-rural integration, the economic level of rural areas and the improvement of residents’ health awareness, the water quality pollution of rural domestic sewage has increased year by year, and the problem of rural sewage discharge has become increasingly prominent. In order to improve the rural water environment and solve the problem of random discharge of sewage, this paper takes the rural domestic sewage as the research object, and takes the natural sedimentation and anaerobic fermentation as the main means to study the on-site resource utilization technology of sewage. It was found that after 3 hours of sewage sedimentation, organic suspended solids settled naturally, resulting in a significant decrease of COD in the upper sewage to 93.29 mg/L. Because of the special bimolecular structure of LAS, the concentration of LAS in surface sewage increased sharply to 7.68mg/L, but it was lower than 10mg/L, which met the irrigation water standard.

Evaluation of small wind turbines for rural electrification: Case studies from extreme climatic conditions in Venezuela

On-site technology performance evaluations are needed in tropical regions with extreme climatic conditions in order to reinforce electricity access programs based on renewable energy technologies (RET), particularly off-grid small wind technologies (SWT). This research aims to evaluate the technical performance and end-users’ acceptance of two SWT projects in Venezuelan communities located at different altitudes and with different weather conditions: a hot desert climate on the Caribbean coast and dry-winter climate in the Andean mountains. The technical performance is assessed through computer simulations to analyze the electricity demand and the wind resource. End-users’ acceptance is studied from in situ surveys and semi-structured interviews with all beneficiaries. Results show that the flat areas on the north coast have a low wind variability and high wind speeds, while in the mountainous areas the implementation of SWT is limited by the orography’s impact on wind variability. However, the social acceptance of SWT in both communities remains high given the existing relationship between load and production variations.

An Accelerated, On-Site Bottom Ash Aging and Washing Treatment and Its Effect for Long-Term Leaching

Ash stabilization is important for realizing safe and reliable disposal sites and promoting MSW bottom ash (BA) recycling. An on-site technology that uses a modified detachable container and stabilizes BA with sprinkling water (watering) and flowing 100% CO2 through the ash layer (carbonation) was developed. Experimental verification of this technology was undertaken (Treatment condition: L/S = 0.6–0.7, 24 h duration, 2.2 t/time). Two treatment methods were investigated using unsieved BA: (1) sprinkling water only (2) sprinkling water combined with carbonation. In the verification test, the chlorine (Cl) content of the BA decreased by up to 72% after the watering treatment. The BA treated by watering and carbonation showed reduction in solubility of Pb by up to 90%. An exothermic reaction due to carbonation was also confirmed. In the lysimeter test (column size: o104 × 400 mmH) conducted to evaluate the long-term leaching performance of the BA treated to promote stabilization, leachate data was acquired over 400 days from both treated and untreated BA. It was confirmed that the leachate of BA treated with watering showed lower EC, cumulative Cl and TOC than untreated BA. The leachate of BA treated with watering and carbonation showed lower pH, Pb concentration and higher cumulative Cl, Ca after 400 days than the one treated with watering alone.