Oil-based Resin Research Articles

The Impact of 3D Printing Technology on the Improvement of External Wall Thermal Efficiency—An Experimental Study

Three-dimensional printing technology continues to evolve, enabling new applications in manufacturing. Extensive research in the field of biomimetics underscores the significant impact of the internal geometry of building envelopes on their thermal performance. Although 3D printing holds great promise for improving thermal efficiency in construction, its full potential has yet to be realized, and the thermal performance of printed building components remains unexplored. The aim of this paper is to experimentally examine the thermal insulation characteristics of prototype cellular materials created using 3D additive manufacturing technologies (SLS and DLP). This study concentrates on exploring advanced thermal insulation solutions that could enhance the energy efficiency of buildings, cooling systems, appliances, or equipment. To this end, virtual models of sandwich composites with an open-cell foam core modeled after a Kelvin cell were created. They were characterized by a constant porosity of 0.95 and a pore diameter of the inner core of the composites of 6 mm. The independent variables included the different material from which the composites were made, the non-uniform number of layers in the composite (one, two, three, and five layers) and the total thickness of the composite (20, 40, 60, 80, and 100 mm). The impact of three independent parameters defining the prototype composite on its thermal insulation properties was assessed, including the heat flux (q) and the heat transfer coefficient (U). According to the experimental tests, a five-layer composite with a thickness of 100 mm made of soybean oil-based resin obtained the lowest coefficient with a value of U = 0.147 W/m2·K.

Surface modification strategies for improved cellulose nanocrystal integration in 3D-Printed bio-based acrylate matrix

The current application of renewable resources in vat photopolymerization (VP) 3D printing is rather limited, emphasizing the importance of incorporating bio-based materials into additive manufacturing (AM). In this study, VP 3D printing technology was applied to create composites (derived from soybean oil-based resin) reinforced with cellulose nanocrystals (CNC). Two distinct modifications for CNC, i.e., the acrylation and functionalization with methyl methacrylate, were selected to achieve strong bonding with the UV-curable acrylate matrix. With the use of 0.1 wt% of modified CNC, the resins retain remarkable performance and support the creation of high-resolution prints. The successful integration of modified CNC showed significant improvements in tensile and flexural properties, e.g., elongation at break increased by 75 % and 295 %, respectively. The addition of modified CNC fillers also increased tensile strength by 147 % and flexural strength by 121 %. Fourier-transformation infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) testified to the enhanced interface between filler and matrix. The morphological features and print quality were examined with microscopic analysis, UV-VIS spectroscopy, and colorimetry. The resin showed exceptional printing resolution, characteristic of VP printing, and yielded double bond conversion rates greater than 70 %. The findings presented here indicate that the addition of 0.1 wt% of modified CNC to bio-based resins results in an exceptional increase in the mechanical performance and dimensional stability of printed materials.

A Short Review: The Use and Application of Matrix Resins Formed with Some Plant-Based Oils in Bio-Composite Materials

Increasing environmental problems, waste recycling problems, and non-biodegradable resources have led researchers to different searches for composite materials in recent years. In these studies, interest in bio-composite materials known as green composites has increased significantly due to their potential to replace traditional materials in material production. The creation of biocomposite materials from natural fibers or natural resins instead of synthetic fibers and synthetic resins has made natural resources the focus of researchers. Among these natural resin formations, the use of vegetable-based oils in various applications has started to be seen frequently due to their low cost, biodegradability, and availability. In addition to being recyclable, vegetable-based oils are an important alternative in many sectors, especially in the chemical industry, both environmentally and economically, with a wide variety of chemical conversion possibilities. The desire to explore the versatility of vegetable oil components formed by the complex multi-component mixtures of fatty acids and glycerol ester accelerates the studies in this field even more. In this study, the chemical compositions of vegetable oils hybridized with different resins, the chemical structures of pure vegetable oils, the different varieties among these vegetable oils, and various types of biocomposites produced using vegetable oil-based resins were investigated. In addition, the latest trends in other applications of these bio-composites, especially in automotive, were examined.

Study of UV-cured tung oil-based polyalcohol resin with isophorone diisocyanate as crosslinker

Petroleum-based resins are associated with increasing energy demands and biodegradability issues. Resins produced from biomass raw materials are a suitable alternative and hold significant potential across various applications, including the manufacture of molding materials, oil-based resins, and adhesives. Particularly in the field of coatings, biomass-based resins are recognized for their environmental friendliness and renewability, although there remains room for improvement in terms of strength and curing speed compared with petroleum-based resins. In this study, we developed a high-strength tung oil-based polyurethane photocurable resin (TOPP). To produce the resin, tung oil was first converted into tung oil polyol, and then acrylic ester along with isophorone diisocyanate was used as a bridging agent to confer photocuring properties. Analysis via infrared and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy confirmed the TOPP structure and demonstrated the reaction of carbon–carbon double bonds to form polyol. TOPP exhibited impressive mechanical properties, including a tensile strength of 21.02 MPa and an elastic modulus of 954.63 MPa, achieved through the optimization of the amount of hydroxyethyl methacrylate added. Additionally, TOPP exhibited excellent hydrophobicity with a maximum water contact angle of 88.78° and a low thermal conductivity of 0.26 W·(mK)−1. As a wood coating, TOPP significantly enhanced resistance to oil and improved waterproof performance. The curing speed was notably accelerated without emissions of volatile solvents, which demonstrates the substantial potential of the resin for coating applications on wooden products, particularly in the furniture industry.

Improvements in the Production of Isosorbide Monomethacrylate Using a Biobased Catalyst and Liquid-Liquid Extraction Isolation for Modifications of Oil-Based Resins.

The improved production of a polar curable monomer, isosorbide monomethacrylate (MISD), with methacrylic anhydride (MAAH) as an acyl donor, was performed. A sustainable and cheap catalyst, potassium acetate (CH3COOK), was used for a solvent-free synthesis, requiring only the equimolar amount of reagents (no excess). The production included the quantitative separation of the secondary product, methacrylic acid (MAA), preventing the reaction batch from the purification process (neutralization of MAA), and gaining a usable reagent. The synthesis resulted in a sufficient yield of MISD (61.8%) obtained by the liquid-liquid extraction process (LLE), which is a significant improvement in the process, avoiding the flash chromatography step in the isolation of MISD. The purity of synthesized and isolated MISD via the LLE was confirmed by 1H NMR, MS, and FTIR analyses. The thermal analyses, namely, DSC and TGA, were used to characterize the curability and thermal stability of MISD. The activation energy of MISD's curing was calculated (E a = 94.6 kJ/mol) along with the heat-resistant index (T s = 136.8). The polar character of isosorbide monomethacrylate was investigated in a mixture with epoxidized acrylated soybean oil (EASO). It was found that MISD is entirely soluble in EASO and can modify the rheological behavior and surface energy of EASO-based resins. The apparent viscosity of EASO at 30 °C (ηapp = 3413 mPa·s) decreased with the 50% content of MISD significantly (ηapp = 500 mPa·s), and the free surface energy value of EASO (γS = 42.2 mJ/m2) also increased with the 50% content of MISD (γS = 48.7 mJ/m2). The produced MISD can be successfully used as a diluent and the polarity modifier of curable oil-based resins.

Rigid polyurethane foams from commercial castor oil resins

Rigid polyurethane foams (RPUFs) are among the most used polymeric materials due to their tailorable properties. Greener and biobased polyol sources for synthesising RPUFs have been recently prototyped because of the ever-growing demand for more sustainable materials solutions. Castor Oil has also rapidly become one of the most successful alternatives to replace polyurethane fossil-based components. This study extensively investigates three types of RPUFs developed from commercially available Castor Oil-based resins, correlating their properties across different length scales. In particular, X-ray diffraction identified a characteristic peak whose intensity correlated with the apparent foam density, morphology (obtained from computed tomography scans) and mechanical properties. Furthermore, quasi-static compression and vibration transmissibility tests revealed distinctive anisotropic mechanical responses among the foams, with one type of RPUF consistently outperforming the others due to its lower porosity, reaching 13.3 MPa of compressive modulus. These findings demonstrate the possibility of tuning the mechanical properties of foams via compositional control.

Natural weathering effects on the surface morphological and physicochemical properties of radiation curable coatings in tropical climate

The purpose of this research is to discover the effects of natural weathering on palm oil-based and petrochemical-based film coatings. The film coatings were prepared using the radiation curing approach via cross-linking. Three palm oil-based resins with TiO2 nanoparticle loading were developed: EPOLA, EPOLA-OPV, and POBUA. The petrochemical-based coatings were also developed to compare the performance of natural and synthetic coatings. The coatings were exposed to natural weathering for up to 60 days at varied angles of 0°, 45°, and 90°. The effect of natural weathering conditions on the surface morphological, physiochemical, and also flexural characteristics of coatings, as well as the discoloration visual inspection and the growth of mould or fungus on the tested specimen, was studied. The results showed that natural weathering exposure induced severe discoloration and deterioration of the polymer network structure of the coatings due to photo-oxidation reaction and the presence of fungi. Overall, palm oil-based coatings deteriorate slower than petroleum-based coatings, especially at a 90° angle. This study indicated that bioresources-based palm oil has a significant potential for interior wood varnish applications due to its superior qualities over synthetic-based coatings.

Performance of castor oil polyurethane resin in composite with the piassava fibers residue from the Amazon

The use of castor oil in producing polyurethane resins has been identified as one of the most promising options for the industry. The piassava fibers waste generated by the industry on a large scale presents excellent properties as a reinforcing agent due to its high lignin content characterized by chemical tests and FTIR. Composite boards consisting of a higher content of mercerized piassava fibers (10 mm, 85 wt.%) reinforced polyurethane castor oil-based resin (prepolymer (PP) and polyol (OM)) exhibited excellent performance. Composites with these properties have strong potential for medium-density applications ranging from biomedical prosthetics to civil partition walls and insulation linings. Alkali treatment removed the superficial impurities of piassava fibers, activating polar groups, and physical characterization reported excellent performance for all composites. Among the composites, the CP3 sample (composite reinforced with piassava fibers (85 wt.% fibers; 1.2:1—PP:OM)) stood out with higher density and lower swelling and water absorption percentage than other composites. FTIR results indicated NCO traces after the resin cured in the PU3 (1.2:1—PP:OM), possibly contributing to the interaction with the fibers. DMA results reported relevant information about more flexibility to CP1 (composite reinforced with piassava fibers (85 wt.% fibers; 0.8:1—PP:OM)) and CP3 than CP2 (composite reinforced with piassava fibers (85 wt.% fibers; 1:1—PP:OM)). The results suggest that the proper combination with natural products must lead to composites with potential applications as engineering materials.

Non-isothermal curing kinetics of soybean oil-based resins: Effect of initiator and reactive diluent

Soybean oil has been utilized as a raw material to develop biobased polymer to replace petroleum-based counterparts due to its abundance, renewability, and molecular designability. Acrylated epoxidized soybean oil (AESO) is a commercially available product and has been used in coatings, plasticizers, and composites. The curing of AESO resins normally refers to the free-radical polymerization of CC bonds, which is closely related to the types of initiators and reactive diluents (RDs). In this work, the processing parameters and curing kinetic mechanism of AESO resins were investigated based on the extrapolation method, Kissinger, Crane, and Friedman equations, and the influences of initiators and RDs on the curing of the resins were explored. Results indicated that the types of initiators significantly affected the processability and curing kinetics of AESO resins, and the curing temperatures and reaction activation energy of the resins were strongly associated with the decomposition temperature and activation energy of the initiators. The number of CC bonds and molecular structure of RDs considerably influence the curing characteristics of the resins. The addition of RDs endowed the reaction more complexity, and the activation energy significantly depended on the level of CC conversion.

Enhancing Stiffness, Toughness, and Creep in a 3D-Printed Bio-Based Photopolymer Using Ultra-Low Contents of Nanofibrillated Cellulose

UV-light-assisted additive manufacturing (AM) technologies require bio-based resins that can compete with commercial petroleum-based ones to enable a more sustainable future. This research proposes a significantly improved vegetable oil-based resin reinforced with nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC). The incorporation of ultra-low concentrations (0.1–0.5 wt%) of NFC produced disproportionate enhancements in mechanical performance. Noteworthy, a 2.3-fold increase in strain at the break and a 1.5-fold increase in impact strength were observed with only 0.1 wt% of NFC, while at 0.5 wt%, a 2.7-fold increase in tensile modulus and a 6.2-fold increase in toughness were measured. This is in spite of NFC agglomeration at even the lowest loadings, as observed via examination of fracture surfaces and dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) Cole–Cole plot analysis. The addition of 0.1 wt% NFC also increased creep resistance by 32% and reduced residual strain by 34% following creep recovery. The Burgers model satisfactorily described the composites’ viscoelastic–viscoplastic behavior within the applied stress levels of 1–3 MPa. The successful development of novel NFC/bio-resin composites with enhanced mechanical performance and long-term stability highlights the potential of these composites to substitute petroleum-based resins in the context of AM resins.

Universal approach for developing reprocessable and reprintable plant oil-based resins for digital light processing 3D printing

Recently, researchers have shown great interest in the development of biobased and reprintable 3D printing materials for sustainable 3D printing. Herein, a method for developing plant oil (PO)-based digital light processing (DLP) printing resins that are both reprocessable and reprintable is proposed. Biobased UV-curable monomers (POPITs) containing dynamic hindered urea bonds (HUBs) from POs were synthesized via the thiol-ene click reaction. A range of DLP printing resins (POPIT-I) with high biobased content (52.6%–58.1%) were prepared by blending POPITs with the biobased dilute monomer isobornyl acrylate. These resins demonstrated good mechanical and thermal properties (e.g., tensile strength: 45.1–49.5 MPa and Tg: 74–92 °C), as well as high DLP printing quality. Reprocessable DLP printing was employed to fabricate large-volume parts through the dissociation and reorganization of HUBs, thereby reducing printing difficulty and printing time. Additionally, a powder blending and modification method was used to recycle and reprint printed materials. The printing materials, including printed green parts and discarded supporting materials, were milled into micron-sized powders and then blended with POPIT-I to prepare the powder blending resins. The milled powders in the powder blending resins were further modified by 2-(tert-butylamino) ethyl methacrylate to prepare reprinting resins. This process resulted in the grafting of C = C onto the powder surface, which eliminated heterogeneity between the powders and POPIT-I. The mechanical and thermal properties of the reprinting resins were comparable with those of POPIT-I even after three rounds of recycling. Furthermore, the reprinting method reported here is applicable to other dynamic covalent bond-based 3D printing systems.

Carbon Capture and Storage through Upcycling of Suberinic Acid Residues in Wood Composites Finishing

Finishing coatings used in the wood-based composite industry play a key role in the final appearance of the finished product. However, the use of such coatings is not only for aesthetic purposes, but also to protect the product against surface damage and moisture or to minimize the emission of harmful substances. The latter is an extremely important factor in terms of safety for both the manufacturer and the user, which is why the emissivity test is one of the most important tests conducted in this case. Carbon-rich materials, such as those remaining from the extraction of birch bark, can fulfill the role of minimizing the emission of harmful substances. In this article, an attempt to create coatings in the form of a film by combining a biopolymer with suberinic acid residues (SARs) was made. Two types of biopolymers were used, polylactide (PLA) and polycaprolactone (PCL), in various polymer–SAR ratios. Suberinic acid as a residue is a raw material that can potentially contribute positively to the fixing of CO2 from the atmosphere, which creates the possibility for further use. As part of this study, the obtained coatings were tested in terms of scratch resistance, relative hardness, cold liquids, total volatile organic compounds (TVOCs), formaldehyde emission, surface absorption, etc. Differences between the polymers used and the effect of the SAR additive on selected surface properties were demonstrated. The addition of carbon-rich SAR significantly improves gas barrier properties of the PLA- and PCL-based surface finishing materials. The relative hardness and scratch resistance also increased with rising SAR content. However, the increasing content of SAR filler acts as a limiter in the depth of penetration of the deposited surface finishing materials onto the wood surface. It is possible to state that this innovative approach regarding (1) the utilization of biopolymers as a matrix, instead of conventional, crude oil-based resins, and (2) the incorporation of post-processed carbon-rich waste lignocellulosic materials to produce the surface finishing and/or protective films has been confirmed.

Incorporation of Lignin in Bio-Based Resins for Potential Application in Fiber–Polymer Composites

Bio-based resins, obtained from renewable raw materials, are a more sustainable alternative to oil-based resins for fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) composites. The incorporation of lignin in those resins has the potential to enhance their performance. This paper presents results of an experimental study about the effects of Lignoboost lignin incorporation on a partially bio-based vinyl ester (VE) resin. Two resins were prepared—without (reference) and with lignin addition (4% by weight) to its main chain—and their chemical, thermophysical, and mechanical properties were compared using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, gel permeation chromatography (GPC), dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and tensile and shear tests. Results suggest that the addition of lignin to the base resin resulted in a copolymer of increased heterogeneity and higher molecular weight, incorporating stiff and complex aromatic structures in the polymer chain. While requiring high-temperature curing, the VE–lignin copolymer presented improvements of 27% in tensile strength, 4% in shear strength, and increased glass transition temperature by about 8 °C, thus confirming the potential of this natural biopolymer for FRP composite applications.

Development of Environmentally Friendly Palm Oil-Based Resins for Coating Applications

Development of Environmentally Friendly Palm Oil-Based Resins for Coating Applications

Fabrication and characterization of light-curing soybean oil-based epoxy resin applied for LCD additive manufacturing

In this work, we developed a photocurable vegetable oil-based resin with suitable curing properties for use in 3D printing. The acrylated epoxidized soybean oil (AESO), which was synthesized by the catalytic ring-opening reaction of the epoxidized soybean oil (ESO) and acrylic acid (AA), replaced the oligomer in conventional light-curing petroleum-based resins. In order to optimize the various properties of the soybean oil-based epoxy resin, the performance parameters of the resin were analyzed by numerical simulation. It was also combined with the parameters of the printing equipment to better guide the 3D printing process of the resin. The results showed that the esterification rate of acrylic acid (AA) with epoxidized soybean oil (ESO) was higher than that of methacrylic acid (MAA) during the arylation of epoxidized soybean oil (ESO), and AESO had moderate viscosity and was suitable as an oligomer for 3D printing. When the diluent of the oligomer has an ACMO to HDDA ratio of 3:2, the cured parts exhibit the optimum mechanical properties, hydrophobic properties, and thermal stability. All properties of the resins were further improved and giving the formulation the best 3D printing performance when 10% of epoxy resin E44 was added to the soybean oil-based epoxy resin. In addition, the numerical simulations indicate that this soybean oil-based epoxy resin formulation has the highest printing efficiency when the single layer thickness of the cured layer is set to 0.2 mm with the exposure time of 4 s, where the wavelength of UV is 405 nm and the light intensity is 40 W/m2. In conclusion, the light-curing resin developed through the soybean oil-based epoxy resin exhibits excellent performance in all aspects. The optimal printing process was also derived by combining the results obtained from numerical simulations of the resin performance parameters with the device parameters, which significantly improved the efficiency of the 3D printing with the fabricated soybean oil-based epoxy resin, making it has great application potential for the biomedical materials.

Archaeometric Study of the Mural Paintings by Saturnino Gatti and Workshop in the Church of San Panfilo, Tornimparte (AQ): The Study of Organic Materials in Original and Restored Areas

In the context of the archaeometrical study of Saturnino Gatti’s wall paintings, a significant aspect concerned the study of the organic component to understand both the original binders used in the original areas and the products used for pictorial reintegration and restoration of the painted surfaces. Thanks to the results obtained from various non-invasive and multi-band imaging techniques, it was possible to define Gatti’s original painting technique and identify the materials subsequently applied in significant samples. To this end, molecular analyses based on mass spectrometry were carried out. Different procedures in gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and in pyrolysis coupled with gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (Py-GC-MS) were adopted. The analyses revealed a variety of organic materials on the mural paintings, most of which are from past restoration interventions and have synthetic origin. The overspread presence of paraffin is likely due to the application of a mineral wax-based coating/consolidant. In particular, the execution technique encompassed the use of tempera-based paints, while retouched areas were characterised by the presence of oil-based resins.

Tensile Performance Mechanism for Bamboo Fiber-Reinforced, Palm Oil-Based Resin Bio-Composites Using Finite Element Simulation and Machine Learning.

Plant fiber-reinforced composites have the advantages of environmental friendliness, sustainability, and high specific strength and modulus. They are widely used as low-carbon emission materials in automobiles, construction, and buildings. The prediction of their mechanical performance is critical for material optimal design and application. However, the variation in the physical structure of plant fibers, the randomness of meso-structures, and the multiple material parameters of composites limit the optimal design of the composite mechanical properties. Based on tensile experiments on bamboo fiber-reinforced, palm oil-based resin composites, finite element simulations were carried out and the effect of material parameters on the tensile performances of the composites was investigated. In addition, machine learning methods were used to predict the tensile properties of the composites. The numerical results showed that the resin type, contact interface, fiber volume fraction, and multi-factor coupling significantly influenced the tensile performance of the composites. The results of the machine learning analysis showed that the gradient boosting decision tree method had the best prediction performance for the tensile strength of the composites (R2 was 0.786) based on numerical simulation data from a small sample size. Furthermore, the machine learning analysis demonstrated that the resin performance and fiber volume fraction were critical parameters for the tensile strength of composites. This study provides an insightful understanding and effective route for investigating the tensile performance of complex bio-composites.

Vat Photopolymerization of Nanocellulose-Reinforced Vegetable Oil-Based Resins: Synergy in Morphology and Functionalization

With the advancement of additive manufacturing (AM) and the mass adoption of 3D printing technology, it is essential to shift focus to environmentally and economically sustainable materials. As the utilization of renewable feedstocks is quite limited in this context, the utilization of more bio-based raw materials in the ongoing development of AM represents an essential means of achieving this shift. In this work, vat photopolymerization 3D printing has been used to process vegetable oil-based (VO) resins with an ultralow concentration of 0.07 vol % nanocellulose fibrils (NFC) and crystals (NCC). The developed nanocellulose containing bio-based vat photopolymerization resin shows excellent shelf stability, enabling high-resolution printing. Compatibilization of the nanocellulose with the polymer matrix was achieved through the introduction of isocyanate or acrylate groups via reactions of acryloyl chloride (AC) and hexamethylene diisocyanate (HMDI) with cellulose surface hydroxyls. Surface functionalization results in ∼20–30% increases in interfacial adhesion and stress transfer, yielding significant improvements in mechanical performance (4× higher toughness, 2.4× higher tensile strength, and 2× higher tensile strain) in 3D-printed specimens. Fourier-transformation infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy complemented by solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) techniques enabled a more detailed study of the chemical structure of these materials as well. Tensile performance comparison with literature data on VO-based natural fiber-reinforced resins showed that this work brought bio-based resins one step closer to competing with petroleum-based resins. The prepared VO/nanocellulose resins are promising candidates for high-performance bio-based resins derived from completely renewable feedstocks.

Additive manufacturing and characterization of mathematically designed bone scaffolds based on triply periodic minimal surface lattices

Lattice structures are widely employed in bone scaffolds to obtain high porosity with interconnected pores and high surface area-to-volume and strength-to-weight ratios. Here, 21 lattice-based scaffold architectures were modeled using implicit functions and additively manufactured using epoxidized soybean oil-based resin. The porosity of the scaffolds ranged from 53.42% ± 1.16% to 98.28% ± 0.75%. Scaffolds with the lowest overall porosity (Group 1) exhibited the highest compressive strength. The compressive strength of eighteen different three-dimensional scaffold designs was compatible with that of human trabecular bone. The results and methodology presented here can facilitate the mathematical design of complex porous scaffolds for bone tissue engineering.

Tannin-Epoxidized Soybean Oil as Bio-Based Resin for Fabrication of Grinding Wheel.

Formaldehyde-free epoxidized soybean oil-based resin has been prepared under acidic conditions by co-condensation of the epoxidized soybean oil and condensed tannin originating from agricultural and forestry sources as the main raw materials, whereas 1,6-hexanediamine was employed as a cross-linking agent. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and electrospray ionization (ESI) corroborated that tannin and epoxidized soybean oil underwent crosslinking under acidic conditions supported by hexamethylenediamine. A bio-based grinding wheel was fabricated by formulation of the developed resin with wood powder as source of grinding particles. The appearance, hardness, compressive strength and wear resistance of the resulting grinding wheel were studied. The results have shown that the grinding wheel possesses a smooth surface with no bubbles or cracks, and its hardness and wear resistance were greater than that of a phenolic resin-based grinding wheel. Interestingly, the grinding wheel incorporates more than 90% of its raw materials as biomass renewable materials; thus, it is generally considered non-toxic. In addition, the future feasibility of this approach to replace some petrochemical resins that are frequently used in the fabrication of grinding wheels is considered.