OH Planar Laser-induced Fluorescence Research Articles

Combustion Instability of Swirl Premixed Flame with Dielectric Barrier Discharge Plasma

The effects of plasma on the combustion instability of a methane swirling premixed flame under acoustic excitation were investigated. The flame image of OH planar laser-induced fluorescence and the fluctuation of flame transfer function showed the mechanism of plasma in combustion instability. The results show that when the acoustic frequency is less than 100 Hz, the gain in flame transfer function gradually increases with the frequency; when the acoustic frequency is 100~220 Hz, the flame transfer function shows a trend of first decreasing and then increasing with acoustic frequency. When the acoustic frequency is greater than 220 Hz, the flame transfer function gradually decreases with acoustic frequency. When the voltage exceeds the critical discharge value of 5.3 kV, the premixed gas is ionized and the heat release rate increases significantly, thereby reducing the gain in flame transfer function and enhancing flame stability. Plasma causes changes in the internal recirculation zone, compression, and curling degree of the flame, and thereby accelerates the rate of chemical reaction and leads to an increase in flame heat release rate. Eventually, the concentration of OH radicals changes, and the heat release rate changes accordingly, which ultimately changes the combustion instability of the swirling flame.

Experimental study of flame evolution, frequency and oscillation characteristics of steam diluted micro-mixing hydrogen flame

Effects of steam dilution on flame evolution, frequency and oscillation characteristics were investigated using an optically accessible micro-mixing combustor under the lean operating condition (equivalence ratio 0.4 to 0.9). The flame profile was visualized by 5 kHz OH planar laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF), meanwhile the structural zoning analysis, frequency spectrum and dynamic mode decomposition (DMD) methods were used to investigate flame instability. The effects on frequency-shift and temporal-spatial heat-release distribution characteristics were demonstrated. Results indicated that heat-release frequency got blue-shift with the increase of hydrogen equivalence ratio while flame length gradually extended, though the second harmonic frequency only occurred in the flame arm zone. The steam content influenced the heat-release obviously, and the obvious periodic oscillation existed in the dilution ratio of 25%. Furthermore, the increasing or decreasing steam content will make the OH radical concentration and distribution change significantly, meanwhile the intensity and location of oscillation zone were also be influenced. The mode decomposition analysis revealed the growth of oscillation zone was closely related to the flame arm zone (FAZ) and experienced the transition to the flame tail zone (FTZ) with the increase of equivalence ratio.

Pinch-off process of Burke–Schumann flame under acoustic excitation

The pinch-off phenomenon in a flame refers to flame separation after reaching the critical frequency and amplitude under acoustic excitation. The pinch-off flame consists of the main flame attached to the nozzle and the detached pocket flame, and it is reported that more pollutants are discharged as the residence time of the pocket gas (i.e., the hot products) increases. This study focuses on the mechanism of the pinch-off phenomenon. The flame structure and flow field were analyzed by the simultaneous measurement of OH planar laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF) and particle image velocimetry (PIV). Due to a lack of previous research on the necessary conditions for a pinch-off flame, this study mapped the conditions for pinch-off in terms of the forcing frequency and velocity perturbation intensity (u′/u¯) under acoustic excitation. The flame height in the pinch-off region was defined in two ways: the main flame height from the nozzle tip to the tip of the attached flame, and the total flame height including the detached pocket. Strouhal number was calculated based on these two definitions of flame height. In addition, the vortex flow and reverse flow under external forces were measured through analyzing the non-reacting and reacting flow fields. Flame deformation due to the entrainment of air in the vortex flow and the reverse flow was confirmed, and it was found to correlate with the pinch-off phenomenon. To analyze this observation quantitatively, time-dependent strain rate analysis was performed, and a high strain was confirmed to be present upon flame extinction. Therefore, these results demonstrate that pinch-off is correlated with the vortex flow and the reverse flow, and caused by a high strain rate acting on the flame surface.

Experimental study of combustion inhibition by trimethyl phosphate in turbulent premixed methane/air flames using OH-PLIF

The influence of turbulent fluctuation on combustion inhibition by trimethyl phosphate (TMP) is investigated in turbulent premixed methane/air flames. The instantaneous flame structures are detected by OH Planar Laser-Induced Fluorescence (OH-PLIF) system, and some statistical parameters, including the global consumption speed, mean fuel consumption rate and mean heat release rate, are attempted to quantify the inhibition effectiveness of TMP in the turbulent premixed flames. Results show that the turbulent combustion regime of the methane/air flame may be changed from the thin reaction zone (TRZ) to the distributed reaction zone (DRZ) regime, due to the high loading of inhibitor. The addition of agent can obviously decrease the turbulent consumption speed. Meanwhile, the relative inhibition efficiency of TMP in the turbulent flame is much lower than that in the laminar configuration. From the point view of reaction, one possible reason is that the difference of the turbulent transportation between the active radicals (H and OH) and the phosphorus-containing species (PO2, HOPO, HOPO2, etc.) may lead to decreasing the capacity of radical scavenging. By increasing the jet velocity, the mean fuel consumption rate and mean heat release rate decrease for the neat flames, but increase for the inhibited ones. The main reason is that the velocity increment is smaller than the increment of flame volume for the neat cases, but is larger than that for the doped configurations. Because of no consistent tendency, these two statistic variables may not the preferred parameters for the evaluation of turbulent flame inhibition.

10 kHz 2D thermometry in turbulent reacting flows using two-color OH planar laser-induced fluorescence.

10 kHz two-color OH planar laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF) thermometry was demonstrated in both laminar Hencken flames and turbulent premixed jet flames using two injection-seeded optical parametric oscillators (OPOs) pumped by a high-speed three-legged burst-mode laser. The two burst-mode OPOs generate ∼5mJ/pulse at 282 nm and 286 nm to excite the Q1(5) and Q1(14) transitions of the A2Σ+←X2Π (1,0) system of OH, respectively. PLIF images were collected simultaneously from each of the two transitions and ratios of intensities from the two images were used to determine local temperatures. Analyses of flame curvature, temperature, and the correlation in time of these two quantities are also discussed. The results from this work are promising for the use of this technique in more complex flow environments and at, potentially, even higher repetition rate.

Two-dimensional temperature in a detonation channel using two-color OH planar laser-induced fluorescence thermometry

This work demonstrates single-shot, two-dimensional temperature measurements in a premixed linear detonation channel using two-color OH planar laser-induced fluorescence thermometry. Detonation environments result in extreme thermodynamic conditions which create challenges in the resulting spectroscopic behavior. However, thermometry based on the ratio of the P1(9)/Q1(14) transitions within the A2Σ+←X2Π(1,0) band of OH was determined to be well-suited for detonation environments based on the spectral characteristics over a wide range of conditions. The technique is demonstrated in the post-induction region, focusing on the nominal equilibrium state of the Chapman-Jouguet conditions, on mixtures of stoichiometric H2 and O2 diluted with either N2 or Ar. High-speed chemiluminescence imaging at 2 MHz was used to assess the qualitative dynamics of the detonation structure. The measured temperature fields for the Ar dilution case are relatively spatially uniform, with the distributions mean agreeing well with the theoretical calculation of the Chapman-Jouguet temperature, consistent with preliminary work [Grib et al., AIAA SciTech Forum, (2021). 2021-0421]. Conversely, the temperature fields for a 50% N2 dilution case are highly irregular, showing a larger dynamic range in temperature as well as pockets of unburned reactants, which emphasized the significance of this measurement by highlighting various reaction scenarios dictated by detonation waves. The irregularity of the N2 dilution cases is explained in terms of the scale similarity between the channel size and the detonation cell sizes for the N2 dilution mixtures, leading to weak or failing detonation modes. Overall, the demonstrated thermometry technique produced a precision (1-σ) of approximately 4% in atmospheric conditions and approximately 7.7% in strong detonation environments. In addition, the accuracy, defined as the percent difference between the mean and CJ temperature, was approximately 1% in the Ar diluted case. The ability to distinguish and quantify detonation burning behavior is promising for employing this approach for application in pressure-gain combustion facilities such as rotating detonation combustors, however care needs to be taken when interpreting the resulting temperature field, particularly near the wave front, due to the precision and validation range of the present line pair.

OH visualization of ethylene combustion modes in the exhaust of a fundamental, supersonic combustor

Abstract This work examined combustion modes in a fundamental, axisymmetric, supersonic combustor at flight equivalent Mach numbers ranging from 7.5 to 9.0. Ethylene was injected at a variety of mass flow rates to examine both scram-mode, jet wake stabilized and dual-mode combustion. At higher flight Mach number conditions, the fuelling rate required to transition from scram-mode to dual-mode combustion increased. Distributions of the OH radical were observed using planar laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF) in a cross-sectional plane immediately downstream of the combustor exit, and analyzed according to their variation in the radial and circumferential dimensions. It was observed that radial centroids of the ring-like OH PLIF signal for the scram-mode cases approached the centerline linearly with increasing equivalence ratio, but the dual-mode cases appeared to randomly fluctuate in the observed exhaust cross-section. The distributions of scram- and dual-mode cases were clustered in specific regions on plots of circumferential variation as a function of radial centroid, with a jet wake stabilized case appearing between the two clusters. These clusters may be used to help identify scram- and dual-mode combustion in future experiments.

Femtosecond laser activation and sensing of hydroxyl for velocimetry in reacting flows.

A molecular tagging method for velocity measurements in reacting environments such as propulsion devices and high-temperature combustion-assisted wind tunnels is described. The method employs a femtosecond (write) laser to photodissociate H2O, a common combustion product, into a locally high concentration of OH radicals. These radicals are tracked by planar laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF) from the A2Σ-X2Π (1-0) vibrational band excited by a time-delayed 284 nm (read) laser sheet. As a variant of hydroxyl tagging velocimetry, the source laser can also be used to dissociate nitrogen for femtosecond laser electronic excitation tagging velocimetry to mark the time-zero location of the write laser for velocimetry in non-reacting regions using the same imaging system without OH PLIF. The OH tracer lifetime is studied in a hydrogen-air Hencken burner operating at Φ=0.5-1.8 to evaluate the tracking capability for velocimetry over a range of conditions. Effects of changing read laser wavelength, excitation energy, and influence of background flame emission are also studied. The data processing methodology and results are described for tracking displacements with 9-25 µm uncertainty in a hydrogen diffusion flame. This method presents several advantages in operational convenience and availability of laser sources, and it provides an avenue for improvements in the repetition rate, precision, and applicability over previously demonstrated hydroxyl tagging schemes.

Effect of hydrogen enrichment on flame broadening of turbulent premixed flames in thin reaction regime

An experimental study to identify the effect of hydrogen enrichment and differential diffusion on the flame broadening is conducted. Turbulent lean premixed flames in the Broadened Preheat–Thin Reaction (BP-TR) regime are obtained. The flames are stabilized on a Bunsen burner and CH4/H2/air mixtures are adopted with three hydrogen fractions of 0, 30% and 60%. The preheat zone and heat release zone are captured with the multi-species Planar Laser-Induced Fluorescence (PLIF) of OH and CH2O radicals. Flame thicknesses of the preheat and heat release layers are measured. Results show broadened preheat zone and thin heat release layers for the flames, as predicted by the BP-TR regime. The preheat zone thickness can be increased to about 3–6 times compared to the laminar preheat thickness. An apparently decreased preheat zone thickness with hydrogen addition is observed. The differential diffusion is anticipated to locally thicken the heat release zone along the flame front. The mean heat release thickness is nearly not affected by the turbulence or hydrogen addition.

Elevated OH production from NPHFD and its effect on ignition

This work explores ignition in flowing mixtures of methane and air at 100 kPa and 295 K initial temperature using a nanosecond-pulsed high-frequency discharge ignition source. Simultaneous OH planar laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF) and schlieren imaging were utilized at a frequency of 50 kHz to examine the time dependent radical generation during and after the plasma discharge. The results indicate that a significant volume of OH was generated in the discharge, and the magnitude of the said volume was a strong function of the pulse repetition frequency (PRF). In addition, it is demonstrated that the intensity of the OH-PLIF signal during and shortly after the discharge is elevated for PRF≥10 kHz, indicating that both the volume and concentration of OH are built up at high PRF. This accumulation of OH radicals in the inter-electrode region is directly correlated with high ignition probability, with higher PRF leading to faster OH accumulation in a step-wise fashion. It is shown that in cases in which the PRF is below a certain threshold (<10 kHz), OH accumulation does not occur, and it is believed that this condition, along with lower discharge temperatures, is directly responsible for reduced ignition probability.

Megahertz-rate OH planar laser-induced fluorescence imaging in a rotating detonation combustor.

Megahertz-rate hydroxyl radical planar laser-induced fluorescence (OH-PLIF) was demonstrated in a hydrogen/air rotating detonation combustor for the first time, to the best of our knowledge. A custom injection-seeded optical parametric oscillator (OPO) pumped by the 355 nm output of a high-energy burst-mode laser produced narrowband pulses near 284 nm for OH excitation. The system generated sequences of more than 150 ultraviolet pulses with 400 µJ/pulse at 1 MHz and 150 µJ/pulse at 2 MHz. The order of magnitude improvement in the repetition rate over prior OH-PLIF measurements and in the number of pulses over previous megahertz burst-mode OPOs enables spatiotemporal analysis of complex detonation combustion dynamics.

Plasma-assisted stabilization of premixed swirl flames by gliding arc discharges

This paper presents key effects of gliding arc discharges on the stability limits of externally perturbed methane/air swirl flames. The low-frequency flow disturbance mimicking the transient conditions in practical combustor was generated by a flow pulsation system with repetition of ∼5 Hz. The synchronized OH planar laser-induced fluorescence and particle imaging velocimetry (OH-PLIF/PIV) measurements were utilized to visualize the instantaneous flow and flame structures. We find that, with gliding arc discharges, the lean blowout limits in perturbed flames are dramatically extended by up to 60%, which is more pronounced than in non-perturbed flames. OH-PLIF/PIV results show that, the stabilization effect can be explained by the expansion of the inner recirculation zone, wherein the opening angle increases from 52° to 62° due to the plasma enhancement. Time-resolved OH-PLIF images illustrate that, in the presence of gliding arc discharges, the flame response to the flow disturbance consists of three stages, including enhancement, extinction, and re-ignition processes. Furthermore, proper orthogonal decomposition (POD) analysis of OH-PLIF images reveals a considerable increase of mean energy contents and suppression of turbulent fluctuations. It suggests that the enhancement of gliding arc discharges is not a simple superposition of the energy deposit, but a strong non-linear coupling between the plasma and the turbulent flame with closed-loop feedbacks.

Ignition mechanisms of pulse detonator initiated scramjet cavity

A fueled cavity in a supersonic crossflow was ignited via a pulse detonator (PD) producing detonation waves that were then decoupled to produce varying degrees of shock-flame separation at the exit of the PD tube. This decoupling allowed for observation of the cavity ignition mechanism, and the key parameters required for successful cavity ignition were identified. Measurements were made using high-frame-rate OH Planar Laser-Induced Fluorescence (PLIF) and schlieren and chemiluminescence imaging. It was shown that the entrainment of high-temperature intermediate species into the forward region of the cavity, immediately behind the step, is the principal criterion for cavity ignition. Both coupled and slightly decoupled detonation cases induced significant OH shedding into the step region, leading to ignition and flame stabilization within the cavity. At conditions where OH shedding into the step region did not occur, cavity ignition was not observed. In coupled and slightly decoupled cases, there is more shedding of OH behind the step due to the greater disturbances created in the flowfield. As the degree of detonation decoupling increases, there is less shedding of OH and therefore a lower likelihood of ignition. Additionally, the time required for cavity combustion to reach its steady-state condition varied with the degree of decoupling of the detonation. Coupled detonation cases were shown to be more disruptive to the cavity and thus required more time to reach steady state than the decoupled cases.

Effect of incident laser sheet orientation on the OH-PLIF imaging of detonations

This study aims to investigate the effect of laser sheet orientation on the OH-planar laser-induced fluorescence (OH-PLIF) imaging of a detonation wave and to identify the potential benefit of using a transverse laser orientation, compared to the conventional frontal orientation. In this study, we developed a new laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) model, based on a preexisting one, to include a more fundamental calculation of the absorption lineshape and the effects of the laser orientation on the fluorescence signal. One- and two-dimensional simulations are used to validate this new LIF model for both laser orientations using OH-PLIF images from the literature. The effect of the two laser orientations on detonation imaging is investigated numerically on a two-dimensional OH field. Based on these results, the frontal orientation seems more suitable to collect information near the detonation front, while the transverse laser orientation can give more quantitative information far from the front and only for short optical paths. With the present laser configuration and experimental conditions, both laser orientations present the same limitation with a strong laser energy absorption for long optical paths. While these first results show a qualitative agreement with experimental data, new experimental data are required to quantitatively validate this promising transverse laser orientation and confirm its relevance for OH-PLIF imaging of detonations.

Effects of Flame Behaviors on Combustion Noise from Lean-Premixed Hydrogen Low-Swirl Flames

This experimental study explored the influence of global/local flame behaviors on direct combustion noise produced by a lean-premixed gaseous low-swirl turbulent jet flame, with a focus on the mechanism resulting in characteristic peaks in combustion noise spectra. Ten kilohertz chemiluminescence and OH planar laser-induced fluorescence (OH-PLIF) imaging were used to study the spatiotemporal evolution of heat release and flame structure fluctuations, respectively, whereas 2-D particle image velocimetry (2-D PIV) measurements at 4 Hz were applied to study the mean-based relation between the velocity/vorticity fields and flame structures. Pressure and global heat release fluctuation measurements carried out alongside these optical diagnostics revealed pronounced double peaks in both combustion noise and global heat release fluctuation spectra at global equivalence ratios of . Spectral proper orthogonal decomposition of the chemiluminescence and OH-PLIF images revealed that the first peak in the noise spectra to be caused by flame oscillations over nearly the entire flame region, whereas the secondary peak was attributed to periodically generated vortical flame structures near the downstream side of the flame boundary. The 2-D PIV results suggest that vortical flame structures are likely generated by the interaction between the flame and the inner/outer shear layers.

Near blowout dynamics of a premixed, swirl stabilized flame

This paper analyzes the flame dynamics of near LBO (lean blowoff) swirl stabilized flames, using simultaneous OH and CH2O (formaldehyde) PLIF (planar laser induced fluorescence) measurements. Prior studies have shown that recirculation stabilized flames approach blowoff through two distinct stages – “stage 1” characterized by local extinction, where the overall flame and flow field remain largely unchanged, and “stage 2”, characterized by a fundamental change in the flow field, accompanied by violent flame flapping and wake disruption. This paper quantifies extinction spots along the flame edge, and entrained reactants within the combustion product region to analyze these stages in greater detail. Extinction spots were quantified by the overlapping regions of OH and CH2O – numerous such spots were found near blowoff. The entraining of unburnt reactants into the recirculation zone was quantified by detecting low intensity OH pockets that were not surrounded by CH2O. As expected, the flame near blowoff displayed significantly more entrained reactant pockets relative to a stable flame. Unexpectedly however, the volume of these pockets is tiny compared to the products, even on the edge of blowoff. Once they enter the wake, they are short-lived, suggesting that they are diluted and/or quickly react. This was surprising given the non-trivial baseflow and flame position disruption at these conditions, suggesting a striking similarity between the average composition of the wake, to that of a stable flame.

Dual/scram-mode combustion limits of ethylene and surrogate endothermically-cracked hydrocarbon fuels at Mach 8 equivalent high-enthalpy conditions

This paper examines the scram/dual-mode combustion limits of hydrocabon fuels within a Mach 8, scramjet combustor. Flight-equivalent flows were delivered to the axisymmetric, cavity combustor via a reflected shock tunnel. Two scramjet fuels were examined: ethylene and a surrogate mixture representing endothermically cracked n-dodecane. Combustion modes were examined via static pressure sensors and through both chemiluminescence imaging, and planar laser induced fluorescence (PLIF) of the OH combustion radical in the combustor exhaust plume. Ethylene-fuelled experiments developed scram-mode combustion under reduced fuelling conditions, experiencing shock wave dominated flowfields. OH PLIF diagnostics indicated such combustion modes developed a ring-like structure of combustion products, primarily axisymmetrically adjacent to the combustor wall. Increased fuelling anchored combustion downstream of the fuel injector, while further increases instigated dual-mode combustion. In this mode, subsonic combustion regions combine with the supersonic coreflow to permit the transfer of information upstream with substantially increased pressure encountered. Optical diagnostics indicate broadly asymmetric, unsteady combustion features. The surrogate mixture representing endothermically cracked n-dodecane experienced rapid onset from no-combustion (optically confirmed) to fully developed dual-mode combustion at critical fuelling rates. OH PLIF signals and chemiluminescence of this fuel were weaker than comparable ethylene cases, indicating potential differences in combustion pathways.

Velocimetry and thermometry in intermediate temperature flow using planar laser-induced fluorescence of OH from photo-dissociation of H2O

A technique for simultaneous velocimetry and thermometry in intermediate temperature flow is developed by combining hydroxyl-tagging velocimetry (HTV) and two-line OH planar laser-induced fluorescence (OH-PLIF). The OH tagging particles generated in HTV from the dissociation of water vapor are then used in two-line PLIF for thermometry. Using fragmentary OH expands PLIF to thermometry in regions that lack original OH, such as low temperature or unreactive ones. Meanwhile, using the PLIF system for both velocimetry and thermometry makes for a more efficient experimental system. As a proof of concept, the temperature and velocity are measured of a heated gas mixture comprising helium and water vapor. The temperature results agree well with the thermocouple results.

Experimental investigation on the ignition and combustion characteristics of pyrolyzed char and bituminous coal blends

This work studies the ignition behavior and combustion characteristics of pulverized pyrolyzed bituminous (PB) char blended with pulverized bituminous coal at different mass fractions. Experimental studies were conducted with OH planar laser-induced fluorescence (OH-PLIF) diagnosis technology in a flat-flame optical entrained flow reactor for pulverized coal/char. An interaction occurs between pyrolyzed char and bituminous coal, which is indicated by the relationship observed between the pyrolyzed char mass fraction mean values (MFMVs) and the combustion properties of the blended fuels. The addition of bituminous coal enhances the competitive effects of the two fuels on ignition and burnout. The synergistic effect observed upon ignition of the blends is mainly attributed to the high volatile contents and the potential catalysis effects from the alkali and alkaline earth metal species in the blends. The important factor leading to this synergistic effect is that the alkali and alkaline earth metal species in the ash can reduce the ignition temperature and accelerate the release of volatiles, thereby shortening the ignition delay. The high flame temperature and the potential catalysis effects from the alkali metal and transition metal species promote blended fuel burnout. Considering both the ignition delay and the residual char burnout, the optimal blending ratio of pyrolyzed char is approximately 20% because the fixed carbon burnout of the blends is considerably promoted and the ignition delay is significantly shortened. In comparison with PB char, the ignition delay decreased by 28.95% and the burnout ratio increased by 39% at the 20% PB char blending ratio.

Combustion dynamics of lean fully-premixed hydrogen-air flames in a mesoscale multinozzle array

ABSTRACT In the near future, lean-premixed hydrogen combustion technology for low-emission gas turbine engines is expected to be crucial in the effort to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions, in association with energy system decarbonization. In this study, we examine combustion instabilities in lean fully-premixed hydrogen-air flames in a mesoscale multinozzle array; little is currently known about how these flames respond to acoustic perturbations. Several measurement techniques, including phase-synchronized OH* chemiluminescence imaging, OH Planar Laser Induced Fluorescence, acoustic pressure, and the two microphone method, are used, together with reduced-order acoustic modeling, to identify the key physical properties of lean-premixed hydrogen-air flames, in comparison with lean-premixed methane-air flames. We show that extremely compact lean-premixed hydrogen flames are preferentially coupled to higher eigenmodes of a given system, L3 – L6, including approximately 1 kHz high-frequency instabilities, while the instabilities of methane-air flames are predominantly limited to the first longitudinal mode under the same range of operating conditions. This is attributed to the fact that the dynamics of the methane flames are governed by the collective motion of constituent flames, involving a complex process of the emergence, convection, and interaction of large-scale structures. By contrast, the hydrogen flames in the multinozzle configuration oscillate in isolation within a very short distance and without strong flame-to-flame interactions. This is particularly suitable for accommodating high-frequency heat release modulations. The triggering of intense sound generation from lean-premixed mesoscale hydrogen flames is correlated strongly with a combination of flame surface destruction due to front merging and the flames’ close proximity to a pressure antinode. These results, for the first time, highlight the key features of self-excited combustion instabilities of mesoscale multinozzle hydrogen-air flames in a well-controlled laboratory-scale experiment, and could pave the way for future carbon-neutral gas turbine combustion technology.