Off-road Vehicle Use Research Articles

Alcohol is a risk factor for helmet non-use and fatalities in off-road vehicle and motorcycle crashes.

Off-road vehicle (ORV) and motorcycle use is common in Canada; however, risk of serious injury is heightened when these vehicles are operated without helmets and under the influence of alcohol. This study evaluated the impact of alcohol intoxication on helmet non-use and mortality among ORV and motorcycle crashes. Using data collected from the Nova Scotia Trauma Registry, a retrospective analysis (2002-2017) of ORV and motorcycle crashes resulting in major traumatic brain injury was performed. Patients were grouped by blood alcohol concentration (BAC) as negative (< 2 mmol/L), legally intoxicated (2-17.3 mmol/L) or criminally intoxicated (> 17.3 mmol/L). Logistic regression models were constructed to test for helmet non-use and mortality. A total of 424 trauma patients were included in the analysis (220 ORV, 204 motorcycle). Less than half (45%) of patients involved in ORV crashes were wearing helmets and 65% were criminally intoxicated. Most patients involved in motorcycle crashes were helmeted at time of injury (88.7%) and 18% were criminally intoxicated. Those with criminal levels of intoxication had 3.7 times the odds of being unhelmeted and were 3 times more likely to die prehospital compared to BAC negative patients. There were significantly increased odds of in-hospital mortality among those with both legal (OR = 5.63), and criminal intoxication levels (OR = 4.97) compared to patients who were BAC negative. Alcohol intoxication is more frequently observed in ORV versus motorcycle crashes. Criminal intoxication is associated with helmet non-use. Any level of intoxication is a predictor of increased in-hospital mortality.

Impossible evidence: The legal dismal cycle of regulating off-roading in the California desert

A forty-year battle over off-road vehicle use in the California desert hinges on a deceptively simple question: how many miles of roads and trails were present in 1980? The only problem is that the answer to this question is impossible. This article seeks to understand the history and effects of this impossible regulatory demand through the concept of “impossible evidence,” which describes evidence that is legally demanded but cannot or does not exist. I detail the rise of impossible evidence through the history of off-road vehicles in California, showing how an unregulated activity slowly comes under the purview of a growing environmental administrative state. I then track the 2009 CBD v. BLM decision to show how evidence becomes impossible. Finally, I discuss the implications of impossible evidence for the future of the California desert, revealing how the demand for impossible evidence creates an unworkable legal “dismal cycle,” while allowing for the continuation of the same problem of off-road vehicle route proliferation.

The impact of recreational activities on species at risk in Canada

Recreational activities are among the most common threats to species at risk. The use of standardized threat assessment tables in assessment reports for 300 Canadian species at risk since 2012 enabled a systematic comparison of threat categories considering both frequency and intensity of threats. Our analysis of these reports reveals that recreational activities are the most common threat to species at risk in Canada, affecting more species than any other threat category. However, the intensity of a threat should be considered. When accounting for the intensity of threats, recreational activities are the third-greatest threat to species at risk in Canada following “Invasive Non-native/Alien Species” and “Roads and Railroads”. Recreational activities were among the top five threats to molluscs, vascular plants, mosses, arthropods, marine and terrestrial mammals, and reptiles considering both frequency and intensity of threat to the assessed species in each taxonomic group. Among species at risk for which recreational activities posed at least a low-level threat, off-road vehicle use was the most commonly mentioned recreational threat. The second-most common recreational threat was hiking. Boating, mountain biking, camping, beach use, horseback riding, off-leash pets, and rock climbing were considered at least a low-level threat to five or more species. Common mechanisms of threat arising from recreational activities include direct mortality and damage from trampling species and/or their habitat, siltation and changes to water chemistry, disruption due to human presence, and noise disturbance. Recreation activities affected more species at risk than any other category of threat. The intensity of threat from recreational activities was negligible or low for most at-risk species affected. However, increases in recreational use and cumulative effects could result in more severe threats in the future. Both mechanized and non-mechanized recreational activities cause direct mortality, disturbance, and/or degradation of habitat for species at risk in Canada including many under-studied taxa. Thus, recreational activities that are typically unauthorised and those that are commonly permitted in protected areas warrant management attention to avoid impacts on species at risk, especially less conspicuous taxa.

Find New RoadsTM? A Systematic Review on the Impacts of Off-Road Vehicle Activity on Soil, Vegetation, and Wildlife

The global use of off-road vehicles (ORVs) in natural environments has accelerated rapidly over the last few decades, resulting in significant social and environmental consequences. As the demand, use, and promotion of light-duty ORVs like all-terrain vehicles (ATVs), motorcycles, four-wheel drive trucks and sport utility vehicles (SUVs) increases in remote wilderness, the landscape is becoming fragmented into disorganized and destructive networks of trails and roads. Substantial ecological impacts to a wide range of ecosystem structures and functions will likely result from ORV activity. Applying a global systematic review, we examine 105 publications about plant, soil, and wildlife responses to ORV traffic in different habitats to help guide the direction of future research, monitoring programs, and mitigation efforts. Most studies investigated impacts to animals, followed by soils, then vegetative responses. Soil studies primarily focused on physical impacts to the soil (i.e., compaction, erosion, rut depth), but some studies suggest that soil chemical and biological properties may also be impacted by ORV traffic. The literature on plant responses to ORV activities primarily explored vegetation loss, although impacts on the plant community were also investigated. Animal studies investigated impacts of ORV use on invertebrates, mammals, birds, and to a lesser extent reptiles/amphibians, including population-level, community-level, and behavioral responses. Overall, research on environmental impacts of ORV traffic is biased to coastal and desert ecosystems in the northern hemisphere (primarily in the US), often does not address mechanisms that may produce ecological impacts (e.g., intensity of vehicular disturbance and ecosystem- or species-specific sensitivity to ORV activities), and frequently focused on short-term responses. More research is needed to understand the mechanisms that cause the different responses of soil, plant, and animals to ORVs over the long-term in a broad range of ecosystems to support real-time management and conservation efforts.

Double Trouble of Air Pollution by Anthropogenic Dust.

With urbanization worldwide in recent decades, anthropogenic dust (AD) emissions due to heavy urban construction and off-road vehicle use have been increasing. Its perturbations on urban air pollution at the global scale are still unclear. Based on observations, we found that a high urban AD optical depth is often accompanied by severe non-dust aerosol optical depth in the planetary boundary layer (PBL), both magnitudes even comparable. To investigate the causes, an AD emission inventory constrained by satellite retrievals is implemented in a global climate model. The results show that AD-induced surface radiative cooling of up to -15.9 ± 4.0 W m-2 regionally leads to reduced PBL height, which deteriorates non-dust pollution, especially over India and northern China, in addition to the tremendous direct AD contribution to pollutants. The estimated global total premature mortality due to AD is 0.8 million deaths per year and is more severe in populous regions.

Influence of off-road vehicle trails on small mammal community structure in western Maryland

AbstractTo minimize risks associated with off-road vehicle use, agencies often designate areas for off-road vehicle recreation; however, this can concentrate impacts. Trails can cause a change in habitat structure and may divide home ranges. Our objective was to survey small mammal populations along a newly established trail to determine whether small mammals were more impacted by changes to habitat structure or the creation of a barrier. Transects established along the trail were trapped to quantify small mammal community structure. Nine species were captured, with Peromyscus spp. being the most abundant. Peromyscus spp. abundance was significantly greater at the immediate trail edge than in the forest interior. Edge effects on habitat structure extended 50 m into the interior but did not appear to affect abundances significantly. Our study suggests that the trail edge itself is more important than the associated habitat change in driving changes to small mammal abundance.

The Dark Side of Nighttime Off-Road Vehicle Use

The Dark Side of Nighttime Off-Road Vehicle Use

A note on Drosera seed dispersal

During my explorations last summer of the Pinelands of southern New Jersey, I went to one of my favorite places. Unfortunately, this site is also a favorite place for off-road vehicles. The Forked River Mountains, and the adjacent powerline and railroad right-of-way, have been very severely damaged by illegal off-road vehicle use. In recent years, a number of volunteers organized, developed a plan, purchased and planted local white cedar trees in an effort to stabilize the soil and begin restoration of the site. I noticed that Drosera rotundifolia and D. intermedia seemed to have segregated themselves to slightly different spaces in the same area (Fig. 1). The nature of the site allows for fluctuations in surface water level, the results of which can be seen in differences where the plants grew. Differences in seed morphology might possibly be the cause of the observed segregation.

Quad bike impacts on vegetation and soil physicochemical properties in an arid ecosystem

The increase use of Off-Road Vehicles (ORVs) coupled with the absence of control strategies have led to extensive use of natural areas for the creation of recreational trails. We assessed the effects of quad bikes on vegetation and soils in an arid ecosystem subjected to intensive quad bike use. We selected randomly eight traffic sites (disturbed sites) and eight adjacent control sites (undisturbed sites). Plant cover and composition were assessed with the point-intercept method and phytosociological census. In each site, we collected soil samples to assess soil physicochemical properties, including apparent specific weight (ASG), actual specific weight (RSG), porosity, texture, electric conductivity (EC) and pH. Soil compaction was measured at 30 spaces points per site. Plant cover and richness was significant lower in disturbed sites, with only four species present in areas subjected to disturbance. There were also changes in species dominance, with native perennial shrubs and grasses characterizing the undisturbed sites while the disturbed sites were mainly dominated by the invasive exotic herb Salsola kali. ORVs traffic also affected soil physicochemical properties including soil compaction, ASG, EC and soil pH. Soil compaction was more than double in disturbed sites and ASG tended to be higher under this condition. The EC was significantly higher and soil pH was significantly lower in the disturbed sites. Reduced vegetation cover and changes to soils physicochemical properties on quadbike trails highlights the impacts of ORVs in the landscape and the need to develop management strategies to minimize disturbance from ORVs on vegetation and soils.

Fatalities and personal injuries from the use of ATVs and snowmobiles in Northern Norway in 2013-14.

Previous studies have shown a high occurrence of injuries and deaths related to the use of snowmobiles and other off-road vehicles in Northern Norway. No public statistics are available to permit monitoring of these findings over time. The objective of our study was to provide new figures for the prevalence of injuries and deaths from the use of snowmobiles and other off-road vehicles, and assess the consistency between different sources of data. Information on registered deaths and personal injuries requiring hospitalisation in Northern Norway in the period 1January 2013-31 December 2014 was collected from the police and hospitals. We also searched through open online sources. We found 7 deaths and 87personal injuries requiring hospitalisation: 13 incidents with ATVs and 81 involving snowmobiles. Median age was 31.5 years, and 41 (44%) victims were below 30 years of age. All the fatalities and 66 (76%) of those injured were men. Altogether 42 (45%) of the incidents had occurred in Finnmark county. Of the seven fatalities, the police found six in their records and the hospitals found two. In searching through open online sources we found one further ATV-related and three snowmobile-related fatalities in the same region and period. No reliable records of fatalities and personal injuries resulting from the use of snowmobiles and ATVs are available. The findings of this study may serve as a reference point for preventive efforts by the police and health services and for purposes of further study.

Age is just a number: A look at “elderly” sport-related traumatic injuries at a level I trauma center

BackgroundWe aimed to describe elderly engagement in recreational activities, their injury patterns, preinjury risks and outcomes. MethodsA 16-year retrospective trauma registry review. All trauma patients ≥65 years admitted after injury sustained during sport were evaluated, and compared to a non-sport cohort of elderly trauma patients. ResultsDuring the study period, 9697 admissions age ≥65 were identified. 526 (5%) were sport-related. Compared to the non-sport group, the sport cohort was younger, had fewer medical comorbidities, and was more severely injured. The common sport mechanisms were skiing, offroad vehicle use and bicycling, and common sport injuries involved lower extremity, chest, and head. Sport patients were more often discharged home than non-sport patients (73% vs 36%, p < 0.001). There was no difference in ICU or hospital LOS between groups. The hospital mortality rate was 3% in sport and 5% in non-sport patients (p = 0.06). ConclusionOver time, the number of elderly sport-related trauma patients increased. Our data suggest that being active may improve outcomes after trauma in older adults.

Application of selected methods of digital simulation to analyse dynamic impact of driven pneumatic wheel on soil in agrotechnical treatments and forestry to limit negative impact on the environment

Loads transmitted by mechanical vehicles to soil result in its deformation and compaction. Increasingly bigger and more efficient machines affect the base they move on to a significantly greater extent. The purpose of this study with the use of digital simulation is to reduce expenses on costly experimental studies with the use of off-road vehicles or specially developed laboratory machines. The simulations were conducted using the Mechanical Event Simulation module, which is a part of the Autodesk Simulation Mechanical software. For each step, the simulation program provides the value of stress in all nodes of the base grid. The stress values obtained via dynamic simulations are consistent with the values registered under laboratory conditions. When classical experiments are replaced with numerical methods, not only the cost is reduced, but also the impact of weather conditions on measurement results is avoided and the time required for the study is shortened. The use of the described methods allows for design and selection parameters of exploitation pneumatics drive mechanism, which will significantly reduce the negative impact on the natural environment by machines in agrotechnical treatments and forestry. This is related to the environmental protection issues.

Age Legislation and Off-Road Vehicle Injuries in Children.

In 2010, the Massachusetts Legislature passed a comprehensive law that restricted off-road vehicle (ORV) use by children <14 years old and regulated ORV use by children up to the age of 18 years. We aimed to examine the impact of the 2010 Massachusetts law on the rates of ORV-related injuries. A retrospective analysis was performed of Massachusetts emergency department (ED) and inpatient discharges between 2002 and 2013 as found in the Center for Health Information and Analysis database by using external causes of injury codes specific to ORV-related injuries. Yearly population-based rates were compared before and after the implementation of the law (2002-2010 vs 2011-2013) by using Poisson regression analysis and segmented regression. There were 3638 ED discharges and 481 inpatient discharges for ORV-related injuries in children across the 12-year study period. After the implementation of the law, the rate of ED discharges declined by 33% in 0- to 9-year-olds, 50% in 10- to 13-year-olds, and 39% in 14 to 17-year-olds (P < .0001). There was no significant decline in ED discharges for 25- to 34-year-olds. Inpatient hospital discharges were also reduced by 41% in 0- to 17-year-olds after implementation (P < .001). As compared with adults (ages 25-34 years), the population-based ORV-related injury rate of residents <18 years old significantly declined after the passage of legislation that imposed age restrictions and other safeguards for youth riders.

Exposure to naturally occurring mineral fibers due to off-road vehicle use: A review.

The use of off-road vehicles (ORVs) is a popular source of outdoor recreation in the United States. While personal injury has been the focus of most epidemiologic investigations regarding ORV use to date, other health effects associated with ORV use have not been adequately examined. ORVs have been designed to operate in rugged, unpaved terrain, and ORVs can produce copious amounts of fugitive dust. ORV use in geographic regions with naturally occurring asbestos (NOA) and erionite (NOE) may result in the liberation of these minerals from underlying rocks and soil, which may put ORV participants at risk to potentially hazardous inhalation exposures. A comprehensive narrative review of existing literature and reports relevant to off-road recreation and mineral fiber exposure was conducted. Manuscripts and reports included in the review were limited to those that contained quantitative data regarding concentrations of mineral fibers recorded during vehicular traffic on an unpaved road and publication in a peer-reviewed journal, official report composed by a government agency, or a report generated under the endorsement of a government agency. In addition, the potential public health impact of ORV use in regions with NOA/NOE was estimated by calculating the proximity of known mineral fiber occurrences to areas of ORV use. A total of 15 publications met inclusion criteria. Exposures to NOA/NOE observed from personal sampling in the included studies ranged from less than 0.01-5.6 f/cc. ORV position while riding in a group and vehicle speed were frequent determinants of measured concentrations. Multiple studies also suggest that children may experience higher exposures to mineral fibers in comparison to adult ORV riders. Information on ORV trails and 665 known occurrences of NOA/NOE was available for five states located in the western United States. Of these 665 known occurrences, approximately 80% (n=515) were located within 20 miles of an ORV trail, and nearly a third were located within one mile. Individuals who operate ORVs in regions where NOA/NOE is a component of the underlying soil or unpaved road may experience elevated exposures to mineral fibers. Given the prevalence of ORV trails in close proximity to these natural fiber occurrences, epidemiologic and surveillance studies of individuals who frequently engage in ORV use are recommended. Public health initiatives should concentrate on increasing awareness of these risks, allowing ORV users to make informed choices and take appropriate measures to limit these risks where possible.

An assessment of coastal land cover and off-road vehicle tracks adjacent to Ningaloo Marine Park, north-western Australia

This paper examines environmental characteristics of a remote coastline adjacent to an extensive fringing coral reef in a World Heritage Area impacted by tourism and extensive use of off-road vehicles. Hyperspectral remote sensing imagery combined with field validation were used to map and characterise the 300-km coast including shore type, land cover and vehicle track footprint. Adjacent to Ningaloo Marine Park, only sparse coastal vegetation cover was present. However, there exists an extensive (1256 km) vehicle track network with the highest densities near accommodation nodes and sandy beaches (over 65% of tracks). Areas managed for conservation had fewer tracks and the lowest track density (0.3 km/km2) compared to pastoral stations (∼1.9 km/km2). The cumulative lengths of tracks were highest on pastoral stations used for livestock grazing, coastal access and camping (945 km out of the total of 1256 km of tracks). The fragility of the arid landscape and this assessment of off-road vehicle impact obtained through detailed mapping of tracks indicate the need for management measures to mitigate the damage and cope with the increasing numbers of visitors.

An Evaluation of U.S. National Wildlife Refuge Planning for Off-Road Vehicle Use

AbstractOff-road vehicles (hereafter, ORVs) rank high among public-land management challenges because they are popular, often impair environmental conditions, and may cause conflicts with other recreational users. Unit-level planning for federal lands increasingly translates broad, system-wide objectives, such as maintenance of ecological integrity, into place-based limitations on ORV use to minimize and mitigate adverse impacts on wildlife. We reviewed 176 planning documents covering 313 National Wildlife Refuges (hereafter, Refuges) to understand how planning supports or undermines ORV recreation management. These plans offer an important perspective on ORV management because the Refuges are a large, diverse system of conservation lands where recreation may be permitted only where it is compatible with wildlife protection. Of the plans we evaluated, 24% mentioned ORV use and 12% prescribed some action related to ORVs. The most common prescriptions banned ORV use or limited it to mobility-impaired hunters. Many plans lacked clarity or documentation of analysis in discussing ORV recreation. When analyses grouped ORV use with other activities, such as hunting or other modes of transportation, they often failed to consider the characteristic effects of ORV use. Regardless of how ORV use was categorized, evaluation of its effects seldom considered the full range of environmental impacts documented in the scientific literature. Published research recommends many best practices for managing ORV use and impacts. Though some are habitat specific, five general best-practice categories highlight where planning connects with and diverges from common recommendations. Other land management agencies offer helpful models for implementing these practices in planning. We suggest that public land managers employ tools from each of the five categories: policy formation and public participation, spatial and temporal route planning, permitting, monitoring, and enforcement. The plan prescriptions we examined were strongest in their efforts at route planning. Refuge prescriptions have the most room to improve in detailing how they can work with neighbors and external stakeholders in formulating ORV-use rules.

Nonmotorized recreation and motorized recreation in shrub-steppe habitats affects behavior and reproduction of golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos).

Different forms of outdoor recreation have different spatiotemporal activity patterns that may have interactive or cumulative effects on wildlife through human disturbance, physical habitat change, or both. In western North America, shrub‐steppe habitats near urban areas are popular sites for motorized recreation and nonmotorized recreation and can provide important habitat for protected species, including golden eagles. Our objective was to determine whether recreation use (i.e., number of recreationists) or recreation features (e.g., trails or campsites) predicted golden eagle territory occupancy, egg‐laying, or the probability a breeding attempt resulted in ≥1 offspring (nest survival). We monitored egg‐laying, hatching and fledging success, eagle behavior, and recreation activity within 23 eagle territories near Boise, Idaho, USA. Territories with more off‐road vehicle (ORV) use were less likely to be occupied than territories with less ORV use (β = −1.6, 85% CI: −2.8 to −0.8). At occupied territories, early season pedestrian use (β = −1.6, 85% CI: −3.8 to −0.2) and other nonmotorized use (β = −3.6, 85% CI: −10.7 to −0.3) reduced the probability of egg‐laying. At territories where eagles laid eggs, short, interval‐specific peaks in ORV use were associated with decreased nest survival (β = −0.5, 85% CI: −0.8 to −0.2). Pedestrians, who often arrived near eagle nests via motorized vehicles, were associated with reduced nest attendance (β = −11.9, 85% CI: −19.2 to −4.5), an important predictor of nest survival. Multiple forms of recreation may have cumulative effects on local populations by reducing occupancy at otherwise suitable territories, decreasing breeding attempts, and causing nesting failure. Seasonal no‐stopping zones for motorized vehicles may be an alternative to trail closures for managing disturbance. This study demonstrates the importance of considering human disturbance across different parts of the annual cycle, particularly where multiple forms of recreation have varying spatiotemporal use patterns that create human–wildlife interactions.

Pediatric Orthopaedic Trauma and Associated Injuries of Snowmobile, ATV, and Dirtbike Accidents: A 19-Year Experience at a Level 1 Pediatric Trauma Center.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the type and severity of orthopaedic and associated injuries for snowmobile, All-terrain vehicles (ATV) and motorized dirtbike accidents in a pediatric patient population. A total of 758 patients who presented following either snowmobile (n=87), ATV-related (n=308) or dirtbike (n=363)-related trauma at our institution between 1996 and 2015 were retrospectively reviewed. A total of 441 axial and appendicular fractures occurred requiring 533 procedures. Snowmobile and dirtbike accidents were associated with a higher rate of fractures (63%, 64%) than the ATV group (50%) (P=0.0008). Snowmobile injuries had the highest rate of spinal (23%) and lower extremity fractures (53%) (P=0.0004). Snowmobile and dirtbike cohorts had higher rate of femur fractures (22%, 17%, P=0.001) whereas the ATV cohort had higher rates of upper extremity (18%), hand (11%), scapula (4.6%), and open fractures (28.6%) (P<0.01). Head trauma was the most commonly associated injury in 275 patients with the highest rate in the ATV group (44%) who also had the highest rate of no helmet use (76%). Snowmobile and ATV patients had higher Injury Severity Score (11.3, 9.6) than dirtbike patients (7.8) (P=0.001). ATV patients were found to be younger (11.8 y) compared with snowmobile (13.2 y) and dirtbike (13.5 y) (P<0.01). Pediatric snowmobile, ATV and dirtbike accidents result in severe orthopaedic and associated injuries with each vehicle demonstrating significantly different injury patterns. Injury prevention should focus on improved safety mechanisms, protective gear, safe areas for off-road vehicle use and strict laws with minimum age requirements LEVEL OF EVIDENCE:: Level IV.

Low level off-road vehicle (ORV) traffic negatively impacts macroinvertebrate assemblages at sandy beaches in south-western Australia.

Off-road vehicle use is arguably one of the most environmentally damaging human activities undertaken on sandy beaches worldwide. Existing studies focused on areas of high traffic volumes have demonstrated significantly lower abundance, diversity and species richness of fauna in zones where traffic is concentrated. The impact of lower traffic volumes is unknown. This study aimed to investigate the impacts of relatively low-level vehicle traffic on sandy beach fauna by sampling invertebrate communities at eight beaches located in south-western Australia. We found that even low-level vehicle traffic negatively impacts the physical beach environment, and consequently, the ability of many species to survive in this habitat in the face of this disturbance. Compaction, rutting and displacement of the sand matrix were observed over a large area, resulting in significant decreases in species diversity and density, and measurable shifts in community structure on beaches that experienced off-road vehicle traffic. Communities at impact sites did not display seasonal recovery as traffic was not significantly different between seasons. Given a choice between either reducing traffic volumes, or excluding ORV traffic from beaches, our results suggest that the latter would be more appropriate when the retention of ecological integrity is the objective.

Water Quality Trends in the Blackwater River Watershed, West Virginia

Abstract An understanding of historic and current water quality is needed to manage and improve aquatic communities within the Blackwater River watershed, WV. The Blackwater River, which historically offered an excellent Salvelinus fontinalis (Brook Trout) fishery, has been affected by logging, coal mining, use of off-road vehicles, and land development. Using information-theoretic methods, we examined trends in water quality at 12 sites in the watershed for the 14 years of 1980–1993. Except for Beaver Creek, downward trends in acidity and upward trends in alkalinity, conductivity, and hardness were consistent with decreases in hydrogen ion concentration. Water-quality trends for Beaver Creek were inconsistent with the other sites and reflect ongoing coal-mining influences. Dissolved oxygen trended downward, possibly due to natural conditions, but remained above thresholds that would be detrimental to aquatic life. Water quality changed only slightly within the watershed from 1980–1993, possibly reflectin...