Official Rank Research Articles

백제의 한자 수용과 문서 행정 시기

Baekje showed mature Chinese literature, such as writing poetry and literature using Chinese characters, no different from China, in the Sabi era. And document administration was thoroughly implemented. However, The period of Baekje's acceptance of Chinese characters and administration of documents cannot be specified due to a lack of related historical and archaeological materials, or it tends to be considered too late as the period of King Geunchogo, so I wrote this article to look into it. Baekje's acceptance of Chinese characters was examined through whether and when the Baekje constituent group accepted Chinese characters. Baekje was composed of the ruling class of the Buyeo and Goguryeo migrant groups and the under-dominated class of the Han tribes and Ye tribes. The Baekje ruling group split from Goguryeo, which accepted Chinese characters from the time of its founding and started document administration. The Baekje ruling group also knew about Chinese characters and document administration as the ruling group of Goguryeo at one time. Moreover, the Baekje ruling group established a site in the Han River basin after passing through the Chinese county area, where thorough document administration was implemented. The Baekje ruling group had an understanding of Chinese characters and document administration. In addition, the Han and Ye tribes, which were the dominant class of Baekje, were at the center of the Han River basin, and the Jin and Han societies, which were first located in the Han River basin, also accepted Chinese characters through the influence of Chinese residents and exchanges with Hansa-gun during each period of chaos in Chinese history, and knew or participated in the document administration of Chinese county. Baekje accepted and used Chinese characters from the beginning of its foundation because both the ruling and under-dominated groups of Baekje accepted Chinese characters. Since there was no direct record of the beginning of the administration of documents in Baekje, the beginning of the administration of documents was inferred by reviewing historical facts that presuppose the beginning of the administration of documents in Baekje. The establishment of educational institutions and the compilation of history books took place during the reign of King Geunchogo. In addition, Archaeological materials related to inscriptions from the Hanseong period are generally considered to be from the 4th century or later. This can be said to have begun the administration of documents from the time of King Geuncho's reign, as previous understanding. However, looking at the floor stone of the 道(直) name, the period of implementation of Baekje's ritual system and official ranking system, and diplomatic relations with China and counties, there is room to place the beginning of Baekje's document administration in the reign of King Goi. If we limit the period, Baekje document administration began at least from 260, the 27th year of King Goi's reign, when the official rank system was implemented. If interpreted more positively, document administration may have been implemented from the 7th year of King Goi's reign (240), when the military commander was established and the military authority of the central and local regions was reorganized. The reorganization of central and local military authority was carried out by the military command and control of all Baekje armies. This means unification of military government, and this can only be achieved through clear document administration.

안악 3호분 벽화의 중원 색채와 그 의의

The main content of the mural painting of Anak Tomb No. 3, a tomb which belongs to the emergent stage of Goguryeo mural tombs, is the life of the tomb owner in his life. It is the same with the mural tombs of China from the Eastern-Han Dynasty. Anak Tomb No. 3 is quite similar to the mural tombs of central China and Liaoyang in terms of the structure of the tomb, as well as the composition and content of the mural painting. Various prestige goods such as a type of cart (通幰車), drapes and a tent (帷帳), a folding screen and flat bench (屛榻), a type of pole (節), a type of folding fan (麈尾扇) depicted on the mural painting of Anak Tomb No.3 represent the official rank, written in black ink on the mural painting of this tomb’s owner, and these contents are the same as those of the mural tombs of central China which are of the same level. This presence of objects originating from central China found on the mural painting of Anak Tomb No.3 and Deokheungri tomb indicates that the Daedong River Estuary basin (which includes the Pyongyang area) maintained a different social and cultural aspect from the Jian area, until the Goguryeo capital was relocated from Jian to Pyongyang in 427. There is a view that Dong Su was not the owner of the tomb, but a gate guard (門吏) written as “Jang Ha Dok” (帳下督) on the wall of the entrance of the western chamber. “Jang Ha Dok” is a subordinate official belonging to the first to third rank of the Wei-Jin Period. According to an ink handwriting record, Dong Su’s rank corresponds to the second to third official rank of the Wei-Jin Period. Therefore, Dong Su cannot be regarded as “Jang Ha Dok”. A type of pole called “jul” (節) on the mural painting reflects the office of “Sa Ji Jul” (使持節) written in black ink. In addition, the oxcart with the tomb owner is a type of cart called Tong Hun Gu (通幰車), which the second to third official rank rode. Therefore, it is most reasonable to regard the owner of Anak Tomb No. 3 as Dong Su, as is written in black ink.

고려시대 토광묘의 장송의례 시설과 배경

This study aimed to examine the changing process of funeral rituals around pit tombs from the perspective of Confucianism as the ruling ideology of Goryeo in the Yanggwang Province.
 Type I of tombs with facilities along the boundary used a wooden coffin(i) to bury the deceased, given the tombs of government officials and the prohibited cases of tomb repair. They held an exorcism ritual(B) to promote the well-being and protection of the deceased or a burial ritual(A) to bury artifacts around the main burial part. The social classes with an official rank or economic power placed importance on a funeral ritual based on Confucian ideology. Type II of tombs with facilities along no boundary recorded a lower occupancy rate of four-object outer coffins(a), which protected the bodies of the deceased in a simple pit(ii) compared with a wooden-coffin tomb(i), than Type I of tombs with facilities along the boundary. These findings confirm that the social class using a simple pit(ii) in tombs with facilities along no boundary(II) had a tendency to place importance on courtesy such as the funeral ritual based on Confucian ideology.
 The study then figured out the attributes related to the funeral rituals, classified them into three stages, and examined the spreading and changing process of a funeral ritual based on Confucian ideology. Stage 1 fell in a period between the early part of the tenth century and the early part of the 12th century. Stage containing shells for the Bangseup of the main burial part. Uirye confirmed the presence of the Chongin ritual(Sauhyeol+Yogaeng) performed by Chongins. Yegi confirmed the usage of spoons and chopsticks in the Seolchi process and that of scissors used before dressing a corpse for burial like others of the three Confucian courtesy books. Jujagarye confirmed the Sauhyeol of Bangsangsi Narye, the installation of Pyeonbang, and the usage of four-object outer coffins(a) to protect the body. Based on these findings, it is estimated that the ideological background of the funeral ritual around pit tombs in Goryeo came from the three major Confucian courtesy books and Jujagarye.

Patronymic Names Ending in -vich as a Marker of Social Status in the Documents of the Russian State of the 14th–16th Centuries

The widely held opinion in historical literature about the privileged status of patronymics ending in -vich is based on the sources of the 16th–17th c. This practice reflected the official look at the system of social hierarchy. In clerical documents, it appears from the 1480s, while in the official chronicles and in the synodics of the Moscow Assumption Cathedral — not earlier than the 1440s. Yet it was only in the middle of the 16th c. that the use of full variants of patronymics was commonly regarded in clerical literature as a sign of belonging to the upper strata of the ruling elite. Sources of private origin show the widespread existence of patronymics ending in -vich as a sign of respect (high self-esteem). The use of such patronymics was widespread in the 12th — first half of the 15th c. and did not always reflect the real status of the owners. In subsequent centuries, there were some cases of these patronymics used among people of low social status, although their number significantly decreased. Already from the second half of the 15th c., the descendants of boyar (and then princely) families of low official rank began to massively use abbreviated patronymics ending in -in and -ov/-ev in private acts. This trend was probably associated with the spread of compulsory service and the related formation of a clearer hierarchy within local communities of service landowners. The relatively late emergence of ideas about the privileged nature of patronymics on -vich makes it necessary to study the sources more carefully in order to use them as a marker of belonging to the service elites. Of greatest interest in this regard is the study of clerical documents, which makes it possible to determine the place and status of a particular person in the court hierarchy.

육임 고전 『대육임필법부』에서 고시⋅관직 이론의 음양오행사상 및 천문사상 연구

『Daliurenbifafu(大六壬畢法賦)』 is the Liuren classics written by Junfuzhi(凌 福之) in the Southern Song Dynasty. As theories related to the examination⋅ the official rank are scattered(散在) in many places of the classics, they are not organized manifestly and the idea which penetrate the theories of the examination⋅the official rank were not investigated in the Liuren’s precedent studies. Therefore, this thesis studied the ideas which penetrate the theories of the examination⋅the official rank in 『Daliurenbifafu』 with the method to collect(聚合) and analyze them and the results are as follows. First, it's the Oriental Taoistic yin-yang and Five Elements theory. Yukyangge is related to the yin-yang theory and Gwanseong(官星) is done to the Five Elements theory. Yukyang(六陽) of kechuan (課傳) is related to the yin-yang theory because it indicates yang. And Gwanseong of Ilgan is done to the Five Elements theory because it originated from Saenggeuk(生剋) of the five elements. Second, it’s the Oriental Heavenly Questions theory. 28 Fixed Stars divided the stars in north and south based on the equator of the sky into 28 sections, which is assigned to Terrestrial Branches. ‘Douguixiangjiage(斗鬼相加格)’ to pass the examination when Dou (斗) which is assigned to Chou(丑) and gui(鬼) which is done to Wei(未) are added to each other in Ilgan and Yeonmyeon(年 命) and ‘Derutianmenge(德入天門格)’ to become top officials when Ildeokgwiin is added to hai (亥) all originated from the Oriental Heavenly Questions theory. And Noble One among the Twelve Heavenly Generals who rules the rest of the 11 Heavenly Generals as the head(首將) means ‘tianyi(天一)’ who serves under Great Heavenly Lord in Forbidden Purple Enclosure. It can be thought that Noble One among the Twelve Heavenly Generals and several ges(格) related to Vermilion Phoenix of them originated from the Oriental Heavenly Questions theory because it obeys his orders.

서울 공평구역 제15ㆍ16지구 나지역 유적 발굴조사 현황과 성과

The excavation survey of 15-16 districts in Gongpyeong-gu, Seoul, identified cultural traces from the early to the late Joseon Dynasty and Metallic artifacts were excavated. This Relic Site correspond to Gyeonpyeongbang in the central part of the Joseon Dynasty where government offices, royal palaces and commercial facilities are located. As a result of the survey on the relic, in particular, many metal artifacts such as metal type, which were only identified as records, were excavated in the cultural layer(16th century), the early Joseon Dynasty. Judging from the fence stone columns and drainage channels that can distinguish the boundary, the building remains where this metal artifact was excavated has an area of about 505㎡ of square land. There are a total of four building remains built within the site. This building remains are divided into two main buildings and two auxiliary buildings. Considering the housing construction regulations of the early Joseon Dynasty, it would have been owned by the class equivalent to 7 to 9 grade of the Joseon Dynasty's Poemgye(degree of official rank) rather than Seo-in group(庶人). The relics identified by this excavation survey will be important data for grasping the social status of Gyeonpyeongbang in the early Joseon Dynasty. In addition, metal artifacts excavated from the 16th century were intentionally buried. The meaning of this artifact can be clarified more clearly through future research.

대한제국 육군 부위(副尉) 황석(1849-1938년) 초상화의 군복(軍服) 연구

This study compare and analysis a military uniform drawn on the portrait of Hwang Seok, a lieutenant, stored in the Korea Army Museum by comparing it with the relics. The relics of Hwang Seok were registered as nationally registered cultural properties on October 5, 2020, under the name of ‘Formal infantry uniforms and mourning clothes(Hwang Seok).’ The portrait was also reported along with military uniforms, but it was excluded because it did not match the subject matter designated at the time. However, it is worth noting that the portrait includes epaulets(大禮肩章), sward knots(正緖), swords(刀), gloves[手套], and shoes[靴], which are not found in his relics. The relics and portraits must be put together to complete the uniform of the Great Han Empire worn by Hwang Seok. As a research method, the change of official position and rank of Hwang Seok was investigated based on garment analysis. The regulations of the military uniforms of the Great Han Empire era were identified and analyzed whether they matched the military uniforms and relics expressed in portraits. Based on this, opinions were presented on the patterns and expressions decorated on military uniforms of this period. The results of this study are as follows. It is confirmed that the portrait, a feather in the hat, a ceremonial army officer’s hat, an official jacket, pants, and military sash Waist Belt of the relics are the same. The color of the military hat, collar, and star-decorated sleeve cuffs and the number of lines representing occupational specialties and class expression methods are the same. In particular, the characteristics of the twist of golden yarns embroideries, such as Geumseon Yanggojik(金線兩股織), Geumsa Gwangjik(金絲廣織), and Geumsa(金絲), and the direction of the line folding point are described in detail in the same form as the relics of the portrait. In addition, the pattern of the button attached to the official uniform jacket also matches. After Hwang Seok’s army was disbanded, a metal buckle was added to the belt, and it is considered that he may have worn a military uniform even after moving to the Department of the Treasury(度支部).

GENESIS OF CRIMINAL RESPONSIBILITY FOR APPROPRIATION, POSSESSION OF MILITARY PROPERTY USING OFFICIAL RANK COMMITTED BY A MILITARY OFFICER

The article provides a comprehensive study of the emergence and development of criminal liability for dishonest appropriation, military property acquiring through abuse of official rank committed by a military official. The research of normative-legal acts of different periods of origin of the Ukrainian statehood is carried out, in particular disclosing the essence of responsibility for dishonest appropriation, military property obtained through abuse, misuse of official rank performed by a military officer. Such normative legal acts are Russkaya Pravda, Sudebniki of 1468, 1550, Statutes of 1529, 1566 and 1588, Rights and Institutions of Little Russia, ‘Conciliar Code’ of 1649, Military Article of 1715, ‘The civil rights of the Little Russian people’ of 1743, ‘Field criminal law’ of 1812, Code of Laws of 1832 (Criminal Code), ‘Statute of a denomination or police officer’ of 1782, the Statute of Punishment, the Village Court Statute of 1839, Penal and Correctional Regulations of 1845, Statutes of Public Administrations ‘Code of military regulations’ of 1869 ‘Statutes of Punishment Criminal Code’ of 1903, ‘Code on weapon requisition’ of 1917, Criminal Codes of the USSR of 1922, 1927, and 1960, decrees on ‘Criminal liability for theft of state and public property’, and on ‘Strengthening the protection of personal property of citizens’ of 1947, Criminal Code of Ukraine of 2001, etc. Having conducted research on legislative acts that were relevant in today's Ukraine at different times, having reviewed scientific works of domestic and foreign scientists, the main aspects of the formation and development of criminal liability for dishonest appropriation, military property acquiring through abuse of official rank committed by a military official are proposed. It is investigated that the norms of the Military Article of Peter I, which regulated the relations in the army, significantly affected the development and approval of the current military criminal legislation of Ukraine. Much attention in the article is paid to the Criminal Codes of 1922, 1927 and 1960, because they see an experiment in the classification of criminal law, taking into account and improving the rules of past regulations, and clearly states the responsibility for the criminal offense researched by us.

A Study on the Stone Wooden Chamber Tombs with Stone Mounds

적석목곽묘는 목곽·적석·봉토·호석을 기본 구성요소로 하는 신라의 특징적인 묘제로, 그 구조와 기원, 편년 등에 대 한 많은 연구가 집적되어 있다. 하지만 매장주체부의 한 축을 이루는 석단시설에 대해서는 많은 사례가 있다고 보는 연 구자와 황남대총 등 극히 일부에만 설치되었다고 보는 연구자 사이의 간극이 좁혀지지 않아 조사 및 연구에 적지 않은 걸림돌로 작용하고 있다. 본고에서는 지금까지 조사된 주요 적석목곽묘의 석단시설 및 이중곽 구조에 대해 검토하였으며, 그 결과 석단은 기 존에 알려진 황남대총 남분·북분, 천마총뿐만 아니라 금관총, 금령총, 서봉총, 쪽샘 41·44호분 등의 중·대형분을 비롯해 황남동 120-2호 등 일부 소형분에도 채용되었음이 확인되었다. 석단은 곽과 곽 사이 채움석 상면에 자갈을 깐 채움식(充塡式)이 대부분을 차지하며, 목관 주위에 석재를 쌓아 만든 쌓음식(石築式)이 일부 확인된다. 석단의 기원과 관련해서는 일각에서 제기되는 목곽묘와는 직접적인 관련이 없으며, 고분의 고대화(高大化)에 따른 상부 및 측면의 막대한 하중을 견디기 위해 발생한 구조로 파악되었다. 여기에 석단 상 면이 순장자와 유물 부장공간으로 활용되고, 제의 및 고분의 품계를 높이는 기능이 더해짐으로서 온전한 석단의 구조 와 기능이 확립된 것이다.Wooden chamber tombs with stone mounds are a characteristic grave system of the Silla period, which consist of the following basic components, including a wooden burial chamber; a cairn of stones which surrounds the wooden burial chamber; an earthen mound that covers the cairn of stones; and a row of protective stones established around the perimeter of the earthen mound. Many studies on the structure, origin, and history have been conducted and accumulated. However, there still exists different opinions regarding the stone platform that formed part of the capstone of the burial chamber. In this study, investigations of the stone platform and double-chamber structure of the main wooden chamber tombs with stone mounds that have been conducted previously were reviewed. As a result, it was confirmed that stone platforms were employed in medium- and large-sized tombs such as in the southern and northern tombs of Hwangnamdaechong, Cheonmachong, Geumgwanchong, Geumryeongchong, Seobongchong, and Tomb no. 44 in Jjoksaem, as well as in some small tombs such as Tomb no. 120-2 in Hwangnam-dong. Most of the stone platforms are of a type that have gravel piled on the upper surface of the filled stones between the double wooden chamber, and some were characterized by a stoneembankment built around the wooden burial chamber. It was found that the origins of stone platforms were not directly related to wooden chamber tombs, but they were structures that were made to withstand the enormous loads applied to the top and sides of wooden chambers as the tombs grew taller and larger. In addition, the upper surface of the stone platform was used as a space for persons buried alive with the dead and for tomb relics, and the completed structure and function of stone platforms were established by adding the function to enhance the dignity of ancestral rites and tombs based on the official rank of the deceased persons buried.

Strengthening the inner circle: the marriage networks of elite families in Joseon Korea

ABSTRACT Socioeconomic homogamy is a prominent process for reproducing the social structure in preindustrial societies including East Asian countries. Although Joseon Korea was a centralized bureaucratic state under a king, the stratification system was unique by its ambiguity such that the previlege of an upper class was not officially confirmed. Since the social status was rather conferred by the reputation of the family, the quality of marriage relation was important for a man to be ranked as a central official. In this paper, we investigate patterns of social homogamy among elite families in the early Joseon Korea through empirical evidence of the relationship between official rank and spousal family background. We created a novel dataset by compiling the marriage network and official rank information of 14,508 individuals from the jokbos (族譜, genealogy) of 15 elite families and conduct an ordinal logit regression analysis to investigate whether spousal family background increases the probability of an individual being promoted in the bureaucracy. We find that the socio-political power of affinal kin has a greater effect on promotions than the descent and meritocratic effects. Particularly, the empirical evidence shows that marrying into a queen consort’s family increased the likelihood of an individual being ranked in a high position, which was beneficial for retaining the political power of him and the family. The study shows that marriage as a means of managing the socio-political inner circle of elite families, shaping the elites’ socio-political inner circle, built on the marriage network around a queen consort’s family to benefit the royal authority and the elite group.

The Poetics of Early Russian Crime Fiction 1860–1917: Deciphering Stories of Detection by Whitehead Claire (review)

REVIEWS 767 whereas in fact he cites a lengthy excerpt, but far from the whole poem. Such trifles, of course, detract next to nothing from the great value of this volume. Georgetown University Svetlana Grenier Whitehead, Claire. The Poetics of Early Russian Crime Fiction 1860–1917: Deciphering Stories of Detection. Legenda, Cambridge, 2018. xi + 266 pp. Notes. Bibliography. Index. £75.00: $99.00: €85.00. Claire Whitehead’s monograph, The Poetics of Early Russian Crime Fiction 1860–1917: Deciphering Stories of Detection, is an intricately researched and fascinating exploration of the origins and development of a forgotten genre. Nineteenth-century crime writing is typically associated with France (Gaboriau’s locked-room mysteries) or Britain (Conan Doyle’s charismatic Sherlock); one of the earliest and most influential fictional detectives was Dickens’s Inspector Bucket in Bleak House (1853), ‘with his forefinger and his confidential manner, impossible to be evaded or declined’. Porfirii Petrovich, the sharp-eyed and manipulative judicial inspector who matches wits against the double murderer Raskolnikov in Dostoevskii’s 1866 novel, Crime and Punishment, is clearly Inspector Bucket’s Slav cousin (the homely TV detective Columbo might be their Californian descendant). Dostoevskii’s novel aside, imperial Russia’s contribution to the detective story genre is often assumed to be limited to Chekhov’s tales, ‘The Swedish Match’ (1883) and ‘The Hunting Party’ (1885). The former, acknowledged by Whitehead as the starting point of her own investigation, was reprinted as recently as 2017 in Foreign Bodies, an anthology in the British Library’s prestigious Crime Classics series. While the emergent ugolovnyi roman, or crime novel, certainly adapted Western narrative topoi and stock characters, its primary role was as a sort of cultural clearing-house in the wake of the 1864 reform of Russia’s judicial system — including, from 1860 onwards, the introduction of the official rank of judicial investigator. Porfirii Petrovich may have been Bucket’s Eastern counterpart, but more significantly, he and his fictional peers trialled the newly minted Russian justice system — in more ways than one. In six substantive chapters tackling questions of narrative authority, the production and management of suspense, and issues of metatextuality and parody, Whitehead marshals a primarily structuralist critical apparatus. Her narratological analysis illuminates aspects of nineteenth-century crime writing which previous critics have only broached. More than twenty years ago, Harriet Murav’s remarkable Russia’s Legal Fictions (Ann Arbor, MI, 1998) argued that authors of crime fiction (even those who have been on the wrong side of the law, like Dostoevskii or the playwright Sukhovo-Kobylin) become complicit SEER, 98, 4, OCTOBER 2020 768 with state authority in constructing society’s ruling organizational narratives. Revisiting Murav’s assertion, Whitehead demonstrates how the first, popular, and now-obscure Russian crime authors deployed narrative hierarchies to instil confidence in judicial authority while over-writing criminals’ unauthorized efforts to re-inscribe social norms. This new breed of investigators were required to earn a law degree; writers duly represented them as more educated than ordinary police. With honourable exceptions towards the turn of the century (like the historical police detective Ivan Putilin, whose cases were sensationally fictionalizedbymultipleauthors),Russiancrimefictionlacksbrilliantmavericks like Poe’s Dupin. Judicial investigators obey convention and protocol, often bolstering their narrative authority by consulting or citing written documents; they collaborate with doctors rather than priests, reinforcing the reassignment of civil authority in the real world. Citing Gary Saul Morson, Whitehead classifies most Russian crime writing from the 1860s and 1870s as ‘threshold literature’ — generically intermediate forms hovering between memoir, fiction and propaganda. Frequent use of the word zapiski (notes) in titles and subtitles served to blur the question of whether these texts were invented or recollected; convict memoirs exploited the same convention, as Louise McReynolds has observed in Murder Most Russian: True Crime and Punishment in Late Imperial Russia(Ithaca,NY,2012).McReynoldsandWhiteheadconcurthatmostRussian crime fictions answer whydunit rather than whodunit; Whitehead argues that heteroglossia, coupled with what she calls ‘uneven omniscience’, are essential textual strategies to restore suspense to the text (for example, the reader knows who killed the pawnbroker in Crime and Punishment, but a combination of narrative polyphony and misleading subplots raise the possibility that the innocent Mikola may be punished for Raskolnikov...

Social Mobility in Late Imperial China: Reconsidering the “Ladder of Success” Hypothesis

Using unique data, we test whether the civil examination system in late imperial China (1796–1905) constituted a route to social mobility. We find that measures of both ability and “family type”—specifically the upper gentry family type—consistently predict success in the highest level exam, the jinshi, while direct proxies for wealth do not. Specifically, the higher the level of the father’s education the greater the odds of passing the first stage of the jinshi exam—the metropolitan exam. But in the final stage of the jinshi exam (the palace exam), where candidates were examined only on their knowledge of statecraft, it is the official rank of one’s father and ancestors, which we use to proxy for family-specific tacit knowledge (or “cultural capital”), that significantly predicts the final ranking and class of honors—both of which crucially determined entry into the Hanlin Academy and subsequent career trajectories. Thus, while it unwittingly facilitated mobility, the civil examination system transmitted hidden advantages among those endowed with more than just human capital.

К вопросу о служебном положении А. Т. Болотова в Кёнигсберге

This article deals with Andrey Bolotov’s official employment status during his time in Königsberg (April 1758 — March 1762). The work considers the historiographic tradition originating from Bolotov’s memoirs, the Königsberg pages of which were written more than 30 years after the events described. Bolotov’s memoirs are compared with his correspondence of the time and the archival materials of the Russian administration of East Prussia during the Seven Years’ War. It is concluded that Bolotov’s status was ambivalent. Although serving as a translator at the governor’s office, he never had an official rank. The study makes it possi­ble to clarify the role that Bolotov had in the local Russian administration as well as to under­stand his attitude to service in that difficult period for the Russian nobility.

7세기의 골품제와 관등제 - 주민의 편적(編籍)과 이주를 중심으로

7세기의 골품제와 관등제 - 주민의 편적(編籍)과 이주를 중심으로

A Study on Tao Yuanming’s Extraction and Official Rank

A Study on Tao Yuanming’s Extraction and Official Rank

支配層 編制에 나타난 新羅의 國家形成 構圖

This article is written to reveal that there are some serious problems with the conventional understanding that the state formation of Silla was completed through conquest, by looking at the constitution principle of Silla’s class system and political rank system. Silla’s class system which is called ‘Golpum’ was established based on the concept of discrimination between the ‘Bone(骨)’ class and the ‘Head quality (頭品)’ class. The former is the organization for the kings and royal families and the latter is for the bureaucrats. The constitution principle of this system was to guarantee the equality of ‘Bone’ class people and to ensure the promotion of ‘head quality’ class people by his ability or distinguished service. And above this principle, it was stipulated politically that only the ‘Bone’ class can occupy the higher part of official ranks named ‘-Khan’, and the ‘Head quality’ class should be able to get the lower ranks. The Multiple Official Rank System(重位制) was a special device for the ‘Head quality’ class to be promoted over the permitted official rank by sideway. The Multiple Official Rank system was first applied to Nama(奈麻) and then to Akhan(阿干). This means that the ‘Sixth Head quality(六頭品)’ class were newly created later. The fact that the status of “bones” were basically equal regardless of their official ranks means that the small countries that made up Silla were joined together in an equal position to establish Silla. In addition, the fact that the grade of ‘Head quality’ was a signifier of not a fixed status but a political position means that the bureaucracy originated from small countries that formed Silla was treated simply by their abilities. And this is a political phenomenon that cannot be seen in a nation formed through conquest. When we compare the structure of the bureaucracy of the small country that remained in the Regional Rank System(外位制) with the composition of the Capital Rank System(京位制) leads us to the same conclusion. Therefore, the existing understanding that Silla was completed by conquering the neighboring small states must be fully reviewed.

A Study on the Relevance between the 40 Statues of Arhats and 500 Statues of Arhats in the Lingyan Buddhist Temple at Changqing

The 40 painted clay statues of arhats in Thousand Buddha Hall of the Lingyan Buddhist Temple at Changqing, Shandong Province were highly appraised by the Chinese celebrities. Meanwhile, the provenience of these statues were paid extensive attentions by both Chinese and overseas scholars. Omura Seigai (1868-1927) in Japan and some Chinese & overseas scholars hold the belief that these Statues correlate with the 500 statues of arhats first carved in the temple in the Song Dynasty. By literature reviews and several field investigations for evidences, we finally concluded that some of the present statues in Thousand Buddha Hall were carved in the 3rd year of Zhiping Emperor in the Northern Song Dynasty (1066), and they were placed in Bozhou Hall, west of Thousand Buddha Hall. Later，the Hall was abandoned because of the destruction by the torrential floods. In the 15th year of Wanli Emperor in the Ming Dynasty (1587), the remaining 32 Statues were moved into Thousand Buddha Hall. And additional 8 statues were carved and placed there successively based on the Hall’s spatial arrangements. The original 500 statues of arhats in the Lingyan Buddhist Temple were completed in the 6th year of Xuanhe Emperor in the Northern Song Dynasty (1124). A Fengyilang (a civil official rank) named Qigu Song donated to sculpture them by craftsmen in Fujian Province. Although the two groups of arhats statues were carved not far from each other in the time of sculpture, they do not correlate with each other.

Research on Construction of Incentive Mechanism to Deal with College Counselors’ Burnout

The burnout of college counselor is a key issue that the current instructor construction faces, to the physical and moral integrity and college student quality of instructor fosters and even the effect of spirit education for college students is having the negative impact. The burnout origin of instructor has internal level, by external factor influence. Must alleviate the burnout of instructor, the university should start from the environmental enhancement drive and standard examination mechanism and optimized young mechanism and perfect official rank upgrading mechanism and other aspects.

The Use of “Comrade” as a Political Instrument in the Chinese Communist Party, from Mao to Xi

AbstractThe mandate that Chinese Communist Party (CCP) members should “address each other as comrades, not by official rank” (hu cheng tongzhi, bu yao jiao guanxian 互称同志, 不要叫官衔) as an expression of equality and shared values has been reemphasized by the Party leadership time and again. This article shows that relations within the Party are also sometimes deliberately fraught with tension, and as a result, the word “comrade” has been used during intra-Party conflicts with the aim of creating status uncertainty among cadre ranks. This strategic use of “comrade” emerges in purges, campaign politics, and anticorruption efforts. It allows the highest leaders to consolidate their power under the linguistic umbrella of solidarity and to inculcate doubt about personal loyalties among Party factions.

Social Mobility in Pre-Industrial China: Reconsidering the 'Ladder of Success' Hypothesis

We test with data whether social mobility existed in late imperial China (1796-1905 AD) through its civil examination system. We find that measures of ability consistently predict the highest level of exam — jinshi — success, while direct measures of wealth do not. However, in addition to the significance of the father’s education, the official rank of one’s father and ancestors, which we use to proxy for family-specific tacit knowledge (or “cultural capital”), also strongly predicts actual exam performance. Thus, while unwittingly facilitated mobility, the civil examination system still transmitted hidden advantages among those possessed with endowments beyond that of human capital.