Official Language Minority Research Articles

Diversity gaps among practicing ophthalmologists in Canada: a landscape study

ObjectiveOutline geographic disparities in access to language-and gender-concordant ophthalmologic care in Canada. DesignCross-sectional. ParticipantsPracticing ophthalmologists in Canada (September 2023). MethodsData on ophthalmologists, including demographics, languages spoken, and practice locations, were collected from provincial regulatory body websites. Population data were extracted from the 2021 Statistics Canada Census. Ratio of ophthalmologists-to-potential patients and mean distances (absolute, population-weighted) to gender- and language-concordant care were calculated. The five most common languages spoken in the included provinces were analyzed. ResultsThere were 986 and 1338 ophthalmologists in the language and gender analysis, respectively. Few ophthalmologists spoke non-official languages in Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and Nova Scotia. In a population-weighted analysis, the distance to a language-concordant ophthalmologist were 4.55 times greater for Spanish speakers compared to their English counterparts. Cantonese speakers had the shortest distances to language-concordant care but were still had 40% greater distance than English speakers in the same regions. Despite French-speaking ophthalmologists being the most prevalent per 100 000 speakers, francophones outside Quebec endured distances over double that of anglophones to access language-concordant care. Females in Newfoundland and Saskatchewan faced the longest distances to access gender-concordant care. In Ontario, females may face 3 times the distance to gender-concordant ophthalmologists compared to males. Quebec approaches gender parity with a male-to-female ratio of 55:45. ConclusionsThe results highlight the disparities in accessibility to non-English ophthalmologic care and the underrepresentation of female ophthalmologists across Canada. These disparities underscore the need for targeted strategies to ensure that the ophthalmologic workforce mirrors the demographic of the population it serves.

Substance Use, Addiction and Support Services: Increased Risk and Service Inequity for Official Language Minority Communities in Canada

ABSTRACT Objectives: The increase in substance use and addictions within the Canadian population, illustrated by the current opioid crisis and exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic, urges the investigation of populations who may be particularly vulnerable to developing problematic substance use. Official language minority communities in Canada, both understudied and underserved, may be one such population. Methods: Through its tripartite design using scoping literature review, interview, and environmental scan methodologies, this study offers a snapshot of the current reality surrounding substance use, addictions, and related treatment services available to this linguistic minority population. Results: Results reveal significant gaps in knowledge and service provision for this population. Service provision and knowledge on this issue constitute a nationwide patchwork, leaving official language minority communities underserved. While enough is known to assert that their needs are different than those of their majority peers, much remains to be investigated, and efforts to ameliorate their social determinants of health, including cultural and linguistic competence on behalf of service providers, are urgently needed. Conclusions: Recommendations include networking, collaboration, financial support and active offer of services in both official languages to improve mental health and addictions services through a continuum of care. Systems navigators may facilitate promotion and referral to such services for official language minorities. Objectifs: La prévalence croissante de la consommation des substances et des dépendances au Canada, tel qu’illustrée par la crise actuelle des opioïdes et exacerbée par la pandémie de la COVID-19, exhorte à l’investigation de populations qui pourraient être particulièrement vulnérables à la consommation problématique de substances. Au Canada, les communautés de langue officielle en situation de minorité (CLOSM), une population à la fois peu étudiée et peu desservie, pourrait bien représenter une telle population. Méthodes: Au moyen de sa stratégie tripartite, employant les méthodologies d’étude de la portée, d’entrevues, et de scan environnemental, cette étude brosse un premier portrait de la réalité actuelle quant à la consommation de substances, aux dépendances et aux services qui y sont voués, parmi les CLOSM au Canada. Résultats: Les résultats révèlent une lacune importante aux niveaux des connaissances et des services desservant les CLOSM dans la majorité des provinces et territoires. Bien que l’état des lieux soit parcellaire en raison du manque d’études scientifiques sur la question, le portrait actuel suffit pour constater que les besoins des CLOSM différent de ceux de leurs pairs de langue majoritaire. Une amélioration des déterminants sociaux de la santé, tel la compétence culturelle et linguistique de la part des pourvoyeurs des services, représente un besoin pressant. Conclusions: Les recommandations, qui comprennent le réseautage, la collaboration, l’appui financier et l’offre active des services dans les deux langues officielles, visent à améliorer les services voués à la santé mentale et aux dépendances auprès des CLOSM au sein d’un continuum de soins. Les navigateurs.rices de systèmes pourraient faciliter l’aiguillage de membres des CLOSM vers ces services.

Language, Employment and Economy in Bangladesh

This article traces the intricate relationship between language, employment, and the economy in Bangladesh while addressing the challenges of fostering this connection. In an era of globalization and rapid technological advancements, the role of language proficiency in enhancing employability and driving economic growth is more crucial than ever. Besides, as a country characterized by linguistic diversity, Bangladesh faces unique challenges and opportunities in leveraging language as a catalyst for economic growth. The coexistence of Bangla as the official language and various minority languages shapes the dynamics of employment and economic development. Language proficiency, particularly in English, plays a pivotal role in enhancing employability and accessing global job markets. However, addressing disparities in language education and ensuring inclusive language policies remain key challenges for promoting equitable economic growth.

Healthcare Service Utilization and Perceived Gaps: The Experience of French-Speaking 2S/LGBTQI+ People in Manitoba.

Ethnolinguistically diverse 2S/LGBTQI+ (two-spirit, lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer and intersex) populations have unique healthcare needs and experience health inequities compared to their cisgender or heterosexual peers. This community-based participatory study sought to describe the profile and healthcare needs and experiences of official language minority French-speaking 2S/LGBTQI+ adults in Manitoba. Participants (N = 80) reported that gender and sexual identity were often concealed from service providers; many respondents faced discrimination based on their ethnolinguistic and sexual identities. Service gaps are identified pertaining to mental and sexual health; locating 2S/LGBTQI+-friendly, patient-centred care in French is difficult. Policy and practice should address systemic inequity and discrimination experienced by this equity-seeking population.

Attitudes towards minority and non-official languages in Spain

This paper presents a literature review that investigates the attitudes towards minority and non-official languages in Spain, such as Aranese, Asturian, Basque, Catalan, Valencian, and Galician, which play an important role in shaping regional identities and cultural expressions. The research methodology involved a comprehensive examination of previous studies, surveys, and academic papers, providing valuable insights into the perspectives of the inhabitants towards these languages in their respective regions. The findings of these studies reveal that language serves as a key element of identity and cultural belonging in the Aranese community of Valle de Arán. Moreover, factors such as educational linguistic models, regional spoken languages, and historical contexts influence attitudes toward Catalan and Valencian. The paper also explores the intricate relationship between the terms “Valencian” and “Catalan”, highlighting the complexities of linguistic identity. Overall, the research indicates a predominantly favorable outlook towards these minority languages. Despite certain challenges, the prevailing positive sentiment contributes to strengthening community cohesion, enhancing educational opportunities, and promoting cultural interactions.

Language: the ignored determinant of health.

Canada is one of the most multicultural countries in the world, with growing numbers of families who do not speak English or French as a first language. However, providing language-concordant services for patients with non-official language preference (NOLP) is not a standardized or measured component of our healthcare system, reflecting the historical marginalization of minority groups in our society. Existing evidence from other countries demonstrates the importance of language as a social determinant of health, and illustrates improved healthcare outcomes for patients with NOLP with the use of medical interpretation. This commentary proposes that a change in our approach to patients with NOLP needs to be accomplished through concerted efforts at the policy, research, and institutional levels in healthcare.

Educating future physicians for francophone official language minority communities in Canada: a case study.

Over one million Francophone Canadians live in official language minority communities (OLMC) outside of Québec. Availability and accessibility of linguistically appropriate care to these OLMCs is lacking, resulting in poorer quality of care. To help address this health equity gap, the FrancoDoc program was created in 2015 to identify Francophone/Francophile medical students enrolled at medical faculties that use English as their primary language of instruction and equip them with skills to increase their medical French abilities. Little is known, however, about the affordances and limitations of this educational endeavour. Our qualitative instrumental single case study explored participants' experiences with FrancoDoc, while also examining factors shaping the delivery of linguistically appropriate healthcare services to OLMCs. We conducted semi-structured interviews with medical students from across Canada and thematically analyzed these using a reflexive, inductive approach. Four main themes were derived from 12 interviews: factors facilitating French language learning; barriers to French language learning; contextual factors shaping linguistically appropriate healthcare provision; and recommendations to improve healthcare education to better prepare learners to provide care to OLMCs. Medical student participants are highly motivated to engage in educational activities linked to FrancoDoc. Their efforts are nonetheless frequently impeded by barriers such as time constraints, irregular event programming, lack of regular clinical learning opportunities, and lukewarm support from faculties of medicine. If medical faculties are to realize their obligations to the OLMCs that they serve, recognition of language as a specific social determinant of health and more robust institutional supports for initiatives like FrancoDoc are paramount.

Translation policies in times of a pandemic

AbstractIn 2020–22, multilingual vaccination communication became an urgent priority around the world, requiring trusted communication in non-official languages. In Brussels, Melbourne and Shanghai, quite different legal frameworks and language policies were challenged by the need for behavior-change communication in a wide range of culturally and linguistically diverse communities. In all three cases, practices were developed that showed the limitations of existing translation policies. Here we use policy analysis to explore the nature of those challenges, to compare the different solutions found in the three cities, and to propose how policies might be developed and adjusted to enhance time-pressured trust-building communication.

Integrating Better but Multilingually: Language Practices of South Asian Immigrants for Settlement and Integration in Canada

Canadian Index for Measuring Integration (CIMI) is used by researchers, policy analysts, and government agencies to evaluate newcomer performance against the local-born population across four dimensions: economic, social, political, and health. Despite recognizing integration as a multidimensional and complex phenomenon, the index mainly evaluates the achievement of the four dimensions but without looking at how they are achieved (e.g., the role of different languages) and the type of integration (narrowed or broader) taking place. One underlying assumption can be that since Canada is a bilingual country, one of the official languages must be used for settlement and integration. However, as this study finds, this may not reflect the social reality of the Canadian society where diverse immigrant populations capitalize on official and non-official languages for settlement and integration. Utilizing the four dimensions with language as an additional variable, this quantitative study reports findings from 493 participants from a sub-group of South Asians from Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan who are able to settle and integrate better when English and ethnic languages are used for socio-politico-economic and health integration. In addition to reporting micro-level multilingual integration supported by ethnic concentrations, this study calls for further investigation of the type of integration in ethnic concentrations and its long-term implications for the Canadian society.

Addressing the Shortage of Health Professionals in Official Language Minority Communities to Strengthen Retention Strategies for the Benefit of New Brunswick Francophone and Acadian Communities: Protocol for a Mixed Methods Design

COVID-19 has highlighted already existing human resource gaps in health care systems. New Brunswick health care services are significantly weakened by a shortage of nurses and physicians, affecting regions where Official Language Minority Communities (OLMCs) reside. Since 2008, Vitalité Health Network (the "Network"), whose work language is French (with services delivered in both official languages, English and French), has provided health care to OLMCs in New Brunswick. The Network currently needs to fill hundreds of vacant physician and nurse positions. It is imperative to strengthen the network's retention strategies to ensure its viability and maintain adequate health care services for OLMCs. The study is a collaborative effort between the Network (our partner) and the research team to identify and implement organizational and structural strategies to upscale retention. The aim of this study is to support one of New Brunswick health networks in identifying and implementing strategies to promote physician and registered nurse retention. More precisely, it wishes to make 4 important contributions to identify (and enhance our understanding of) the factors related to the retention of physicians and nurses within the Network; determine, based on the "Magnet Hospital" model and the "Making it Work" framework, on which aspects of the Network's environment (internal or external) it should focus for its retention strategy; define clear and actionable practices to help the Network replenish its strength and vitality; and improve the quality of health care services to OLMCs. The sequential methodology combines quantitative and qualitative approaches based on a mixed methods design. For the quantitative part, data collected through the years by the Network will be used to take stock of vacant positions and examine turnover rates. These data will also help determine which areas have the most critical challenges and which ones have more successful approaches regarding retention. Recruitment will be made in those areas for the qualitative part of the study to conduct interviews and focus groups with different respondents, either currently employed or who have left it in the last 5 years. This study was funded in February 2022. Active enrollment and data collection started in the spring of 2022. A total of 56 semistructured interviews were conducted with physicians and nurses. As of manuscript submission, qualitative data analysis is in progress and quantitative data collection is intended to end by February 2023. Summer and fall 2023 is the anticipated period to disseminate the results. Applying the "Magnet Hospital" model and the "Making it Work" framework outside urban settings will offer a novel outlook to the knowledge of professional resource shortages within OLMCs. Furthermore, this study will generate recommendations that could contribute to a more robust retention plan for physicians and registered nurses. DERR1-10.2196/41485.

Correlates of Physical Activity in Children from Families Speaking Non-official Languages at Home: a Multi-site Canadian Study.

Children from families speaking a non-official language at home may be particularly at risk for low physical activity (PA), underscoring a need to investigate correlates of PA in this subpopulation. We recruited 478 children in 37 schools stratified by area-level socioeconomic status (SES) and type of urbanization within three regions of Canada. Steps/day were measured using SC-StepRx pedometers. We assessed potential social-ecological correlates with child and parent surveys. We used gender-stratified linear mixed models to examine the correlates of steps/day. Outdoor time was the strongest correlate of boys' and girls' PA. Lower area-level SES was associated with less PA among boys, but outdoor time attenuated this difference. The strength of association between outdoor time and PA decreased with age in boys and increased with age in girls. Outdoor time was the most consistent correlate of PA. Future interventions should promote outdoor time and address socioeconomic disparities.

Living in a liminal space: Experiences of 2SLGBTQ + official language minority Canadians during the COVID-19 pandemic

The intersecting identities of those identifying with multiple minorities, such as 2SLGBTQ + and ethnolinguistic minorities, bring individuals to have unique experiences, especially concerning health and wellness. This topic is particularly poorly understood among French-speaking official language minority 2SLGBTQ + populations in Canada. Hence, this study was conducted to generate insights into their needs and experiences, through the lens of intersectionality. This quantitative community-based study, a first of its kind in Western Canada, describes the sociodemographic profile, experiences of discrimination and stigmatisation, and needs and challenges pertaining to mental health and social supports of this double minority group. Data were obtained by an online survey conducted in the Canadian province of Manitoba in June 2020. The participant sample was largely homogenous: most were under the age of 55 years, white, educated, and from urban areas. Many reported experiencing dual marginalisation, feeling unaccepted by both of their minority communities (Francophone and 2SLGBTQ+). A sense of isolation, as well as a lack of social connectedness and psychological support, were often reported. Social initiatives and mental health support within environments proactively affirming of the official language of the minority and inclusive of diverse 2SLGBTQ + identities are needed.

Correlates of Outdoor Time in Schoolchildren From Families Speaking Nonofficial Languages at Home: A Multisite Canadian Study.

Previous research shows that children from ethnic minority groups spend less time outdoors. Using data collected in 3 regions of Canada, we investigated the correlates of outdoor time among schoolchildren who spoke a nonofficial language at home. A total of 1699 children were recruited from 37 schools stratified by area-level socioeconomic status and type of urbanization. Among these, 478 spoke a nonofficial language at home. Children's outdoor time and data on potential correlates were collected via questionnaires. Gender-stratified linear multiple regression models examined the correlates of outdoor time while controlling for age and sampling variables. In boys, higher independent mobility, higher outdoor air temperature, mobile phone ownership, having older parents, and parents who biked to work were associated with more outdoor time. Boys living in suburban (vs urban) areas spent less time outdoors. The association between independent mobility and outdoor time became weaker with increasing age for boys. In girls, lower parental education and greater parental concerns about neighborhood safety and social cohesion were associated with less outdoor time. Correlates of outdoor time differ by gender and span the social ecological model underscoring the need for gender-sensitized interventions targeted at individual, family, social, and physical environmental correlates to increase outdoor time.

Jumping Through Hoops in the Canadian Immigration System: A Critical View of the Immigrant's Journey to Citizenship

AbstractLanguage assessment for citizenship is a ubiquitous enforced and enacted policy in several developed countries (e.g., Canada, the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, and the Netherlands, to name a few). In this regard, language testers have expressly argued that this practice enacts injustice for and adds hurdles to marginalized immigrant groups (McNamara & Shohamy, 2009; Shohamy, 2009). Nevertheless, language proficiency tests remain a critical, high‐stakes criterion in evaluating immigrants' permanent residence and naturalization applications. To this end, language tests used for immigration and citizenship purposes are often aligned with widely recognized language frameworks such as the Canadian Language Benchmarks (Chen & Flasko, 2020) and the Common European Framework of Reference (Lim, Geranpayeh, Khalifa, & Buckendahl, 2013). In turn, these alignment studies idealize, in subtle ways, new Canadians with language proficiency requirements that would make them worthy of permanent residence or citizenship. Knowledge of society tests plays an essential role in immigrants' journey to citizenship and can also be considered tests of reading proficiency. This study focuses on the enacted Canadian language policy for prospective immigrants and citizens, adopting a corpus‐assisted discourse analytic approach (Taylor & Marchi, 2018) to the study guide for the Canadian citizenship test (Discover Canada: The rights and responsibilities of citizenship). A primary focus is examining how official and nonofficial languages are represented within this document. The findings highlight some of the problematic assumptions that underpin the use of monolingual constructs in tests encountered in the journey to permanent residence and Canadian citizenship.

Teachers’ language attitudes towards the use of a nonstandard variety in the classroom in Grades 1–3: A case of isiBhaca in Umzimkhulu, KwaZulu-Natal

South Africa is a democratic country, and as such, it is crucial that every individual’s linguistic rights be protected. Also of paramount importance is that the South African government should revisit the issue of granting official status to some languages to the exclusion of others, such as isiBhaca, and consider the issue of a ‘language variation’. The educational setting has experienced challenges over attitudes towards language varieties. Teachers’ attitudes towards using a nonstandard variety of language or dialect in the education space have implications for effective teaching and learning. Therefore, this paper aims to establish the attitudes held by teachers towards the use of isiBhaca (a nonstandard variety of isiXhosa) in the education space in Umzimkhulu, KwaZulu-Natal. Using the qualitative research method, data were gathered from 22 purposively selected teachers in six schools in Umzimkhulu. Interviews were used to collect data, and the qualitative data were analysed thematically. The study found that teachers view integrating isiBhaca into the classroom as having immense benefits. The results further revealed that teachers felt that isiBhaca should initially be taught in the lower primary school grades (Grades 1–3) and up to the tertiary education level. The findings imply that learners’ academic performance in Umzimkhulu is affected by the use of isiXhosa as a medium of instruction in schools. This is why teachers who were participants in this study believe that isiBhaca is a language of the people of Umzimkhulu, and thus their learners should be given a chance to be taught in isiBhaca.This study contributes to the body of knowledge by demonstrating the attitudes and experiences of teachers in communities where non-standard languages are used in South Africa and how teachers cope in such multilingual classrooms. In the case of isiBhaca, teachers felt that it should be adopted as a language adequate to be used in learners’ education, even though it is a non-official language. Thus, teachers’ attitudes and views should not be ignored when discussing teaching and learning pedagogies.

Gaps in knowledge and practices of malaria prevention in Francophone African immigrants in Metropolitan Edmonton

BackgroundImportant knowledge gaps exist in the understanding of the management of the risks of imported malaria in Canada among Francophone immigrants from sub-Saharan Africa (FISSA). The aim of this cross-sectional study was to investigate the malaria related-knowledge, attitude and practices (KAP) of FISSA in Edmonton, where these immigrants are in an official minority language situation and the impact of language barriers on these factors.MethodsA structured survey was used to examine the KAP of 382 FISSA in the Edmonton area from 2018 to 2019. Fisher’s Exact Test was applied to determine if there were associations between knowledge of malaria and different risk factors.ResultsAlmost all FISSA (97%) had an accurate knowledge of fever as the key symptom of malaria. Interestingly, 60% of participants identified bed nets as a preventive method and only 19% of participants had accurate knowledge of malaria transmission. An accurate knowledge of symptoms was significantly associated with a high perceived risk of contracting malaria [odds ratio (OR) 4.33, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.07–20.62]. Furthermore, even though 70% of FISSA had a high perceived risk of contracting malaria in endemic regions, only 52% of travellers had a pre-travel medical encounter. Importantly, language was not the predominant reason for not seeking pre-travel medical advice, although 84% of respondents chose French as their official language of preference when seeking medical advice. Having a French-speaking physician was correlated with satisfactory prevention knowledge (OR 1.96, 95% CI 1.16–3.35). With respect to health-seeking behaviour, 88% of respondents with a child < 5 years of age would seek medical care for fever in the child after travel to sub-Saharan Africa (SSA).ConclusionThis study highlights that factors other than knowledge, risk assessment, and language might determine the lack of compliance with pre-travel medical encounters. It underscores the need for effective strategies to improve this adherence in minority settings.

Health Status of Minority Francophone Seniors in Manitoba and Access to Services in French: Potential for Social Isolation

Francophone seniors in Manitoba represent a growing and vulnerable population, with poorer health outcomes and limited access to health and social services in the official minority language. To avoid isolation, support services are required, as chronic diseases and reduced mobility have a direct impact on both physical and social needs. The purpose of this study is to examine the current health status of seniors in the Francophone minority population of Manitoba and their access to health and social services in French. Demographic, social and health profiles were obtained for Francophone and non-Francophone Home Care clients in Winnipeg. Although diagnosed with similar health conditions as non-Francophones, Francophone seniors are less likely to be assessed with reduced cognitive performance and conditions making mood and behaviour unstable, such as dementia other than Alzheimer’s. Gaps in bilingual health services were identified for pharmacy, audiology and occupational therapy services, meal and transportation systems as well as support services for informal caregivers. Housing options with in-house support services provided in French are available and additionally provide opportunities for seniors to socialize with other Francophones. For the elderly living in singlehome units and their caregivers, support services provided in the official minority language are needed.

The Last Standard-Bearers of Biculturalism: A Quebec-Ontario Comparison of Cosmopolitan, National, Subnational, and Local Affiliations among Official Language Minorities

Despite the popularity of the cosmopolitan idea of “postnationality” and multicultural concepts of citizenship, biculturalism continues to have a lasting impact upon Canadian institutions and group loyalties. This article constitutes the first empirical investigation of affiliations among the two largest official minority language groups in Canada, Anglo-Quebecers and Franco-Ontarians. Concurring with previous research, the study finds that organizational engagement predicts stronger socio-territorial affiliations. Furthermore, evidence shows that, Franco-Ontarians are 1) less likely to be cosmopolitan than Anglo-Quebecers, 2) about equally likely to be attached to the Canadian national identity as Anglo-Quebecers, 3) more likely to identify with their province than Anglo-Quebecers, and 4) more likely to have a strong affiliation with their local polity than Anglo-Quebecers. Taken together, the findings suggest that cosmopolitanism might work better for majorities than minorities, and as a consequence for Anglophones than Francophones even when the former are in a minority setting.

The Pharmacist Is In: The Availability and Distribution of French-Speaking Pharmacists in Ontario

Francophones are an official language minority in Ontario with limited access to linguistically concordant healthcare services. Although communication is an important skill in the field of pharmacy, little is known about the availability of French-speaking pharmacists. This secondary data analysis of the Ontario College of Pharmacists registry converted weekly hours worked into full-time equivalents (FTEs) and calculated ratios of pharmacist FTEs per 1,000 population. French-speaking pharmacists tended to offer fewer FTEs in communities with a larger concentration of Francophones, particularly in northern and rural areas, a trend that was not observed among English-speaking pharmacists. This maldistribution of French-speaking pharmacists may limit the ability of official language minority patients to receive pharmacy services in their language of choice.

Sense of Belonging and Social Climate in an Official Language Minority Post-Secondary Setting

Perceived sense of belonging and positive social climate on campus are crucial elements for post-secondary students, as they contribute to academic achievement, positive mental health, and help-seeking. Few studies have explored post-secondary students’ sense of belonging and perceptions of social climate in an official language minority campus, which attract Canadian-born francophones, anglophones who pursue higher education in their second language, and francophone international students. With declining student mental health and greater ethnolinguistic diversity of post-secondary students on Canadian campuses, this important study aims to explore francophone students’ perceived sense of belonging and social climate on campus. In total, 35 students from different ethnolinguistic backgrounds took part in focus groups or individual interviews. Domestic students with French as their first language more often reported positive social climate on campus and a sense of belonging, in contrast to international students and students with French as a second language. A common obstacle to connecting with others was language insecurity in one of the official languages, as both are currently used on campus. Universities hosting students of multiple linguistic diversities should provide courses and campus events to stimulate intercultural knowledge and dialogue.