Offense Variables Research Articles

Impact of offensive team variables on goal scoring in the first division of the spanish soccer league: a comprehensive 10-year study

This study assessed the impact of team offensive variables on goals scored in Spain’s first-division soccer league from 2012–2013 to 2021–2022. A nomothetic multidimensional study was conducted, following the STROBE checklist. From 115 team variables available in the INSTAT database, 57 offensive metrics were selected. The selection was performed independently by five researchers to ensure comprehensive inclusion of relevant metrics. The data included 38 league matches each season, involving 30 teams. The study identified key offensive performance metrics strongly correlated with goals scored. These include shots on target (r = 0.898), chances created (r = 0.871), penalty box entries (r = 0.852), positional attacks with shots (r = 0.818), total shots (r = 0.807), central attacks with shots (r = 0.804), accurate passes (r = 0.760), and efficiency in positional attacks (r = 0.755). The findings underscore the importance of specific offensive metrics in enhancing goal-scoring capabilities. Coaches can improve their team’s offensive performance by focusing on passing accuracy, dribbling, and maximizing scoring chances. Successful teams consistently convert attacks into shots on goal through various situations, including central attacks, flanks, counterattacks, corners, and set pieces. Tactical adjustments based on these insights can optimize offensive effectiveness.

The influence of meteorological factors on the technical performance of football teams during matches.

This study explored the impact of the meteorological factors air temperature, relative humidity, and wind speed on teams' technical performance during the Union of European Football Associations Champions League (UCL). Technical match statistics were collected for five seasons (2016/2017-2020/2021). Thirty-one technical actions and events were categorized into three groups (goal scoring, offense, and defence). Meteorological data were collected from the official UEFA website (air temperature (°C): 11.59 ± 6.87, relative humidity (%): 71.40 ± 17.82, wind speed (km/h): 11.52 ± 7.02). LASSO regression analysis was employed to identify important indicators that affect match outcomes, while separate Poisson regression models were used in generalized linear modelling to determine the effects of meteorological factors on key technical performance indicators. The results revealed that offensive variables were instrumental in distinguishing match outcomes (winning, drawing, and losing), with meteorological factors significantly influencing these variables. Notably, "shot from counter attack" was the most significantly affected variable, being exclusively influenced by air temperature (OR = 0.55, 95% CI: 0.30 to 0.98). Two technical indicators, "dribbles won" and "shots from the 6-yard box," were both significantly influenced by two meteorological factors. "Cards per foul," an understudied variable, displayed a close association with all the three meteorological factors. These findings offer valuable insights for coaches and analysts in comprehending the influence of meteorological conditions on crucial technical variables during the performance evaluation of teams. Moreover, they provide valuable information to help coaches devise appropriate tactics for players before or during a match, considering the potential changes in meteorological conditions.

0009 Circadian Athletic Performance Variations When Travelling in the Canadian Football League

Abstract Introduction Previous studies have shown a circadian disadvantage in professional sports with teams traveling westward. This effect has been attributed to the circadian clock, core body temperature and associated decline in sports performance in the evening. Compared to the National Football League (NFL) teams, Canadian Football League (CFL) teams often travel longer distances and play at later times. As such, the objective of the present study was to investigate the circadian disadvantage in the CFL. Methods Data from 5 years of CFL regular season games were extracted from online databases (2016-2021). Wins, score differentials, first downs, average total, passing, penalty, and kickoff yards, pass completion percentages, interceptions, fumbles, sacks, and time of possession were extracted for both the offense (made) and defense (allowed) for every away evening game (after 6pm; n=387) as well as the direction of the travel (eastward, same time-zone, westward). Two-way ANOVAs of Direction of Travel (eastwards, same time-zone, westwards) on each performance variable were computed to study the circadian effect. Linear regression analyses were done to investigate the effect of the distance travelled by the away team (longitude travelled) on each performance variable. Results Significant effects of travel were found for team variables: score differentials (F[2,386]=3.86, p=.02) and time of possession (F[2,386]=5.42, p=.005). Significant results were also found for offensive variables: first downs (F(2,386)=2.91, p=.06), average kickoff return yards (F[2,386]=3.54, p=.03), fumbles (F[2,386]=2.38, p=.09), and for defensive variables: first downs allowed (F[2,386]=2.79, p=.06), average yards per play (F[2,386]=4.83, p=.008), average passing yards allowed (F[2,386]=3.14, p=.04), average kickoff yards allowed (F[2,386]=3.37, p=.04). Each significant post-hoc t-test revealed a circadian disadvantage to teams travelling westwards and a circadian advantage for teams travelling eastwards. Linear regression analyses showed that traveling westward predicts worst performances on some variables, with an increasing effect with distance travelled. Conclusion These results are consistent with previous findings showing that professional sports teams travelling westward show important challenges in evening games. In addition, our results highlight the fact that this disadvantage may affect not only the result of the games, but also the performance of players at a more individual level. Support (if any)

Dodging justice: characteristics of men with multiple victims who evade detection for long periods

ABSTRACT Little is known about men who sexually abuse multiple children and evade detection for long periods. This group is responsible for inflicting significant harm due to the severity, and longevity of their offending. The aim of the study was to identify men who perpetrate persistent sexual offences against children and differentiate them by those with long detection lags (LDLs) (n = 35) and short detection lags (SDLs) (n = 35) using police databases and case files. The men were compared on demographic characteristics, lifestyle factors, victimisation, psychopathic traits, antisocial orientation, atypical sexual interest, and descriptive sexual offence variables. The LDL participants had more psychopathic traits, more pre-pubescent child victims, more often be in professional employment and have less antisocial and criminogenic indicators than the comparative SDL group. These findings have significant practical implications for reduced victimisation through early identification, forensic risk assessment, treatment and earlier prevention strategies for CSA. Practice impact statement The current findings have important and practical implications within forensic risk assessment, especially Structured Professional Judgement (SPJ) when assessing specific groups of offenders. In addition, research informed SPJ can better prioritise policing investigative resources, both retrospectively (e.g. identifying victims) and prospectively (e.g. reducing detection lags and victimisation) while defensively informing the criminal justice system of the most appropriate supervision intensity and intervention modalities for men with clinical and forensic indicators of potential high victimisation and longer detection lags.

Criminal recidivism in offenders with and without intellectual disability sentenced to forensic psychiatric care in Sweden-A 17-year follow-up study.

BackgroundOffenders with intellectual disability (ID) constitute a distinct subgroup of offenders with mental disorders. Regarding criminal recidivism, it is unclear whether or not offenders with ID in forensic psychiatric settings differ from offenders without ID. Factors associated with criminal recidivism among offenders with ID have been scarcely investigated.AimTo investigate the association between ID and criminal recidivism among offenders sentenced to forensic psychiatric care and to explore the impact of clinical, sociodemographic and offense variables.Materials and methodsWe conducted a retrospective cohort study based on Swedish nationwide registers. A total of 3,365 individuals being sentenced to forensic psychiatric care in Sweden in 1997–2013 were followed from the forensic psychiatric assessment until first reconviction, death, emigration, or 31 December 2013, whichever occurred first. Cox regression models compared rates of recidivism in individuals with and without ID. Impact of clinical, sociodemographic, and offense variables on risk of criminal recidivism was presented as hazard ratios (HRs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs).ResultsOut of 3,365 offenders sentenced to forensic psychiatric care, 259 (7.7%) were diagnosed with ID. During follow-up (0–17 years, median 6 years), one third (n = 1,099) of the study population relapsed into criminality, giving a recidivism rate of 50.5 per 1,000 person-years. We observed an association between ID and a decreased risk of recidivism (HR 0.8, 95% CI 0.6–1.0, p = 0.063), although this reached statistical significance only for the subgroup of male offenders (HR 0.8, 95% CI 0.6–1.0, p = 0.040) and not females (HR 1.0, 95% CI 0.6–1.8). ID offenders with concurrent ADHD tended to have a higher rate of recidivism (73.9 per 1,000 person-years, HR 1.2, 95% CI 0.6–2.4) than ID offenders without ADHD (42.5 per 1,000 person-years, HR 0.8, 95% CI 0.6–1.1). Amongst ID offenders, concurrent autism spectrum disorder, young age or male sex were not associated with recidivism, while previous criminal convictions were strongly associated with recidivism.ConclusionA diagnosis of ID was associated with a lower risk of criminal recidivism among male offenders sentenced to forensic psychiatric care. The association between ADHD and recidivism among ID offenders highlights eligible focus areas in the management of offenders with ID.

‘Cold feet’: The attrition of historic child sexual abuse cases reported to the police in a Northern Canadian Territory

BackgroundMost previous sexual assault attrition research has not differentiated between cases reported promptly and non-recent (or historic) reports, obscuring differences in attrition patterns. Historic child sexual abuse [HCSA] presents challenges for investigation and prosecution, including a lack of physical evidence, and complainant and witness memory issues. ObjectiveTo determine attrition patterns and analyze complainant reasons for withdrawal in HCSA cases in a region with a large Indigenous population. Sample and settingThis study examined 231 non-institutional HCSA complaints reported to the police in a Northern Canadian Territory. MethodsFiles were coded for a range of complainant, suspect, and offence variables. Reasons given by complainants were examined using thematic analysis. Logistic regression was performed, looking for factors connected with complainants' likelihood of continuation. ResultsOverall attrition was 68.8%, with 159 cases not resulting in convictions. The leading cause of attrition, at 39.6%, (n = 63) was initiated by complainants, many of whom withdrew during the early stages of the investigative process. Thematic analysis of reasons for complainant withdrawal yielded two main themes (‘cold feet’ and ‘therapeutic’). Logistic regression results showed that three complainant-related variables were significant [p = 0.001] for complainant continuation: multi-complainant cases; previous disclosure by complainants; and complainant age (15–17 years old) at offence. ConclusionsResults showed less attrition overall than for recent sexual assault, and highlighted the need to support HCSA complainants from early in the process, especially those reporting abuse for the first time. It was also found that some complainants were satisfied without going to court.

Predicting field-goal success according to offensive, defensive and contextual variables in elite men's wheelchair basketball.

The purposes of this study were to (i) develop a field-goal shooting performance analysis template and (ii) explore the impact of each identified variable upon the likely outcome of a field-goal attempt using binary logistic regression modelling in elite men’s wheelchair basketball. First, a field-goal shooting performance analysis template was developed that included 71 Action Variables (AV) grouped within 22 Categorical Predictor Variables (CPV) representing offensive, defensive and game context variables. Second, footage of all 5,105 field-goal attempts from 12 teams during the men’s 2016 Rio De Janeiro Paralympic Games wheelchair basketball competition were analysed using the template. Pearson’s chi-square analyses found that 18 of the CPV were significantly associated with field-goal attempt outcome (p < 0.05), with seven of them reaching moderate association (Cramer’s V: 0.1–0.3). Third, using 70% of the dataset (3,574 field-goal attempts), binary logistic regression analyses identified that five offensive variables (classification category of the player, the action leading up to the field-goal attempt, the time left on the clock, the location of the shot, and the movement of the player), two defensive variables (the pressure being exerted by the defence, and the number of defenders within a 1-meter radius) and 1 context variable (the finishing position of the team in the competition) affected the probability of a successful field-goal attempt. The quality of the developed model was determined acceptable (greater than 65%), producing an area under the curve value of 68.5% when the model was run against the remaining 30% of the dataset (1,531 field-goal attempts). The development of the model from such a large sample of objective data is unique. As such it offers robust empirical evidence to enable coaches, performance analysts and players to move beyond anecdote, in order to appreciate the potential effect of various and varying offensive, defensive and contextual variables on field-goal success.

Technical characteristics of elite youth female soccer match-play: position and age group comparisons between under 14 and under 16 age groups

ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to quantify the technical characteristics of U14 and U16 elite youth female soccer match-play and compare position-specific differences between and within these age groups. A total of 449 match observations from 45 matches were undertaken on 189 players representing Regional Talent Centres in The Football Association’s Girls’ England Talent Pathway league. Linear mixed modelling determined position-specific differences for 24 technical and 4 possession-based variables. Results showed similar team possession-based characteristics at both age groups. Interceptions (U14 = 4.6 ± 0.3, U16 = 3.9 ± 0.3) and tackles (U14 = 4.2 ± 0.3, U16 = 3.2 ± 0.3) were the most common defensive actions. Passes were the most common offensive action (U14 = 21.8 ± 1.8, U16 = 25.1 ± 1.9). In possession, U14 central players performed more actions than wide players, whilst actions were more evenly distributed amongst positions at U16, suggesting a variation in playing style between age groups. Technical performances of players were position-dependent, and differences in offensive and defensive variables were observed between age groups across all positions. These findings may assist practitioners in informing specific coaching practice, training programme design or talent identification processes within this population.

Ability to Predict Side-Out Performance by the Setter's Action Range with First Tempo Availability in Top European Male and Female Teams.

The aims of this study were to compare the Setter’s action range with availability of first tempo (SARA) between male and female volleyball; and to determine the relationship between several spatial and offensive variables and their influence in the success of the side-out in male and female volleyball. A total of 1302 side-outs (639 male, 663 female) were registered (2019 European Championship). The ranking, reception efficacy, position and trajectory of the setter between reception and set, first tempo availability, side-out result, rotation, and attack lane were analyzed through Recursive Partitioning for classification, regression and survival tree models and classification and regression trees algorithms. Our results present female teams with more reduced SARAs than male teams, meaning female setters tend to play closer to the net. The correlation between the ranking and the distance from the average position of the setter to the ideal setting zone was not significant. A movement of the setter of 30° or less and more than 1 m in distance might improve the performance of the side-out. Depending on the spatial usage of the setter, some rotations might be more successful than others. When assessing performance, the teams should consider the ability to play quick attacks when their reception is not as precise as they would expect.

Driver Pattern Identification in Road Crashes in Spain

Extracting driver collision patterns by gender and age regarding offences, collision type and injury severity is very useful in road safety, providing a better understanding on behavior of the different driver groups. Self-Organizing Map (SOM) is the tool proposed for distributing and projecting 145,904 drivers according to 8 offence variables on a 2D map. Thus, drivers who are close in the original 8D space (one dimension per offence variable), will remain so in the projected one (2D). Multivariate driving and collision patterns are explored to support the development of future measures to improve road safety. Tests of proportions are used for shedding light on clusters where driver offence is present. Finally, the SOM results were compared for validation with those of the standard K-Means clustering technique. The results show that the characteristics of road crashes and the severity of injuries depend jointly, i.e., in multivariate (pattern) terms, on gender, age, type of collisions and offences. There are relevant multivariate driver behavior differences in both the type of collisions (and therefore their severity) and the type and number of offences with regard to gender and age of the driver. This research unveils different multivariate driver behavior patterns, providing information about their relative importance (proportion), which helps in road policy decision making in terms of development of prevention measures. The results help in decision making through a potentially better allocation of resources as carried out by road safety regulating offices such as the Spanish Traffic General Directorate (Direccion General de Trafico, DGT).

Analysis of discriminatory game variables between winners and losers in women’s handball world championships from 2007 to 2017

The aim of this study was to identify game variables that discriminated winning from losing teams and to understand how these variables contributed to victory by observing goal differences in matches of the women’s handball world championships. The sample comprised 471 WCh’s games played between 2007 and 2017. The games were grouped into three clusters: balanced games – difference of 1-8 goals; unbalanced games – difference of 9-20 goals; and very unbalanced games – difference of &amp;gt; 20 goals. Generally, the performance of winning teams was significantly higher (in most variables), or lower in the case of the number of technical faults (p&amp;lt;.05). In the balanced games, there was a greater contribution of defensive variables (stolen balls, blocked throws, and goalkeeper’s efficiency indicators) in relation to attack variables (attack efficiency and throw efficiency indicators). For victory, the number of technical faults reduce the chances of winning. Games with the unbalanced and very unbalanced goal differences seem to follow the same tendency; however, in the very unbalanced games, there were more assists, yellow cards and 2-min suspensions. We concluded that the decisive variables for victory in the balanced games showed a greater weight, with a special emphasis on stolen balls followed by offensive variables (throw efficiency indicators, attack efficiency, and technical faults). There was an equal tendency for the games with unbalanced and very unbalanced outcomes.

Exploring home advantage and quality of opposition interactions in the Chinese Football Super League

ABSTRACTThe purpose of this study was to explore the influence of quality of opposition and match location on game-related statistics in the Chinese Football Super League (CSL). Seven hundred and twenty matches from season 2014 to 2016 of CSL were analysed and all teams were classified into two groups according to their final rankings at the end of each season. The game-related statistics were divided into goal scored, offensive, defensive, and physical variables. Mann–Whitney U-test with effect size at 95% of confidence interval, and Discriminant analyses were used. Results showed a home advantage (HA) near 60%. In addition, home teams showed significantly higher average values in performance indicators regardless of the team’s quality, especially in goal (score: 1.55 vs. 1.22; ES = 0.27 ± 0.10, and shots: 13.29 vs. 11.01; ES = 0.47 ± 0.10) and offence variables (possession: 0.51 vs. 0.49; ES = 0.33 ± 0.10). According to quality of opposition, superior teams played better at home in attacking categories like goal scored (1.83 vs. 1.39; ES = 0.34 ± 0.15) and offensive (possession: 0.53 vs. 0.51; ES = 0.33 ± 0.14). In conclusion, superior and inferior teams experience HA differently. These findings can help coaches to manage their team’s performance according to the contextual variables that influence on performance, especially about match location and quality of opposition.Abbreviations: Home advantage (HA); Chinese Football Super League (CSL)

Tactical offensive variables of penalty corner in World Cup men's hockey 2014

This research aims to Identify the most effective tactical offensive variables while performing the penalty corner in World Cup hockey men's 2014, where the researcher analyzed (272) penalty corner through a form for tactical variables of penalty corner in field hockey which designed by researcher. Research samples were chosen intentionally which include (38) matches for teams that participated in the World Cup of Hockey men 2014, which was held in Netherlands and they were twelve teams. A researcher has used descriptive survey method. The most important results that passing ball by drag is the only used skill in the first pass during ball entrance to the circle in all penalty corners, attackers organization on the circle during penalty corner as two groups is more effective and widely used than one group and finally shooting of the player none receiving the ball using drag flick skill from the right of the goalkeeper is more widely and effectively used than passing the ball in the circle after its fixation and shooting at goal.

An Opportunity View of Child Sexual Offending: Investigating Nonpersuasion and Circumstances of Offending Through Criminological Lens.

The empirical evidence indicating that sexual offenders against children manipulate their victims to participate in sexual activities dominates the literature on sex offenders and their modus operandi. However, recent evidence suggests that a high proportion of these offenders do not try to persuade their victims for sexual contact in the first place by using coercion or manipulation but simply assault them when an opportunity arises. Using self-reported data from a sample of incarcerated adult sexual offenders against children, we investigate whether sexual offenses against children committed by the use of nonpersuasion are characterized by little planning and by offense features that are indicative of opportunistic offending. We also examine the interaction between the type of offending strategy and the context of abuse. Findings reveal that offenders using nonpersuasion do not seek out potential victims, but rather seize an opportunity to offend. The type of offending strategy also interacts with the context of abuse for most preoffense and offense variables. These interactions are informative of the conditions favoring opportunistic sex offending against children.

Exploring the longitudinal offending pathways of child sexual abuse victims: A preliminary analysis using latent variable modeling

Very little research has been conducted to show the way in which criminal behavior unfolds over the life-course in children who have been sexually abused, and whether it differs from the ‘age-crime’ patterns consistently documented in the criminology literature. This study investigated the temporal pathways of criminal offending between the ages of 10–25 years among medically confirmed cases of child sexual abuse (CSA), and considered whether abuse variables, offense variables, and the presence of other adverse outcomes, were associated with heterogeneity in offending pathways among CSA survivors. This study utilized data gathered as part of a large-scale study involving the linkage of forensic examinations on 2759 cases of medically ascertained CSA between 1964 and 1995, to criminal justice and public psychiatric databases 13–44 years following abuse, together with a matched comparison sample of 2677 individuals. We used the subsample of 283 offending individuals (191 victims; 92 comparisons) for whom complete offending data were available. We compared the aggregate age-crime curves for CSA victims and comparisons, and applied longitudinal latent class analysis to identify distinct subgroups of offending pathways between ages 10–25 years within the abuse sample. Four latent pathways emerged among sexually abused offenders, labeled: Early-Onset/High-Risk/Adolescence-Limited; Intermediate-Onset/Low-Risk/Adolescence-Limited; Late-Onset/Low-Risk/Slow-Declining; and Early-Onset/High-Risk/Persistent offenders. Age at abuse, the nature and frequency of offending, and mental health problems, were associated with the offending pathway followed by CSA victims. Consistent with criminological literature, findings indicate considerable heterogeneity in the longitudinal offending patterns of offenders exposed to CSA. Implications for clinical practice and directions for research are highlighted.

Keys to Success in High Level Water Polo Teams

The aim of this study was to identify specific offensive performance indicators that distinguish the top clubs from the others in the Male Honour Division of the Spanish Water Polo League. A total of 88 matches from the 2011-2014 seasons have been analysed. The offensive performance variables were divided into four groups, namely, playing situations, attacks outcome, origin of shots, and technical execution of shots. Univariate analyses (ANOVA, Kruskal-Wallis and generalised linear model (GLM) tests) were conducted to identify differences in the offensive variables between “strong”, “medium” or “weak” teams’ performances. A multinomial logistic regression was carried out to determine the variables that best distinguish the team level. The offensive variables that best classified the team level (61.9% of correct classification rate) were counterattack shots (p<0.010), goals (p<0.011), no goal shots (p<0.013), drive shots (p<0.020), penalties (p<0.000), and shots originated from zones close to goal (zone 5 (p<0.010) and 6 (p<0.000)). As a conclusion, this paper presents values of reference for the offensive variables that best distinguish between the strong, medium and weak teams’ performances. This information can help coaches to evaluate their teams and to design training sessions aimed at improving their weakest skills.

A systematic review and meta-analysis of the characteristics of multiple perpetrator sexual offences

This systematic review examined the demographic and offence variables in group sexual offending. Eight bibliographic databases and three thesis portals were searched. The reference lists of five papers and one textbook were hand searched. Nine experts were contacted for ongoing or unpublished studies. The total number of hits was 1853, of which 55 were duplicates, 1769 were irrelevant, 14 did not meet the inclusion criteria and one paper was unobtainable. The remaining 15 papers were quality assessed before the data were extracted and synthesized. There were 2,873 cases of Multiple Perpetrator Sexual (MPS) offences in total. The majority of MPS offending in the included studies involved perpetrators in their early twenties (90% of studies), of Black/African Caribbean ethnicity (30.1%), and operated as part of a „duo‟ (49.8%). Thirty-five percent of MPS offences were committed by perpetrators with a previous conviction, with 11% of the cases showing a previous conviction for sexual offending. Offenders were most likely to approach victims outdoors with the offence itself occurring indoors. The most frequent offence behaviors included vaginal rape, multiple penetration and fellatio. A model of MPS offending is suggested based on the findings of this review. Future research should aim to explore and refine theories of MPS offending in order to understand the etiology of this unique offending group.

Predictors of victim disclosure in child sexual abuse: Additional evidence from a sample of incarcerated adult sex offenders

The under-reporting of child sexual abuse by victims is a serious problem that may prolong the suffering of victims and leave perpetrators free to continue offending. Yet empirical evidence indicates that victim disclosure rates are low. In this study, we perform regression analysis with a sample of 369 adult child sexual offenders to examine potential predictors of victim disclosure. Specifically, we extend the range of previously examined potential predictors of victim disclosure and investigate interaction effects in order to better capture under which circumstances victim disclosure is more likely. The current study differs from previous studies in that it examines the impact of victim and offense variables on victim disclosure from the perspective of the offender. In line with previous studies, we found that disclosure increased with the age of the victim and if penetration had occurred. In addition, we found that disclosure increased when the victim came from a non-dysfunctional family and resisted the abuse. The presence of an interaction effect highlighted the impact of the situation on victim disclosure. This effect indicated that as victims get older, they are more likely to disclose the abuse when they are not living with the offender at the time of abuse, but less likely to do so when they are living with the offender at the time of abuse. These findings are discussed in relation to previous studies and the need to facilitate victim disclosure.

Comparison of tactical offensive variables in different playing surfaces in sided games in soccer

In recent decades soccer has been analysed in great detail, enabling the technical and tactical aspects of the game to be improved through observation, analysis and training. However, there are not significant studies that particularly looked at the impact of the playing surfaces in depth. Thus the main aim of this study is to analyse and compare the quantitative and qualitative effect of the playing surface (grass, dirt or turf) on teams’ and players’ performances from a tactical perspective, through observing various sided games in youth soccer players. 54 games in three different formats (5v5, 7v7 and 9v9) were analysed, divided into two age groups (378 players of U-9 and U-14 categories) and filmed at three Spanish soccer clubs. This study used the observational and descriptive method and was carried out by systematic observation. This involved watching pre-recorded matches to observe and log different types of behaviour in previously defined categories. Results revealed that there were no significant differences for the different surfaces or game formats, and the study presents a description and analysis of the aspects that had considerable influence on the attacking moves for each surface and game format.

Risk and Needs Assessment: Constitutional and Ethical Challenges

Across jurisdictions, the criminal justice system is enamored with the evidence-based practices movement. The idea is to utilize the best scientific data to identify and classify individuals based on their potential future risk of reoffending, and then to manage offender populations according to risk and criminogenic needs. Risk-needs tools now inform a variety of criminal justice decisions, ranging from pre-trial outcomes, to sentencing, to post-conviction supervision. While evidence-based methodologies are widely exalted as representing best practices, constitutional and moral objections have been raised. Risk-needs tools incorporate a host of constitutionally and morally sensitive factors, such as demographic and other immutable characteristics. The constitutional analysis herein engages equal protection, prisoners’ rights, due process, and sentencing law. In addition, the text examines the philosophical polemic aimed uniquely at sentencing as to whether risk should play any role at all in determining punishment. The Article then appraises potential alternatives for risk-needs methodologies if the concerns so raised by critics prove legitimate. Any option comes with significant consequences. Retaining offensive variables incites political and ethical reproaches, while simply excising them weakens statistical validity of the underlying models and diminishes the promise of evidence-based practices. Promoting an emphasis on risk at sentencing dilutes the focus of punishment on blameworthiness, while neglecting risk and needs sabotages a core objective of the new penological model of harnessing the ability to identify and divert low risk offenders to appropriate community-based alternatives.