Off-grid Communities Research Articles

Coordinating biomass supply chains for remote communities: a comparative analysis of non-cooperative and cooperative scenarios

The absence of economies of scale is a major barrier in use of renewable energy sources in small and dispersed off-grid remote communities. For example, in northern Canada, diesel is currently the main source of electricity and heat generation. Coordination of biomass supply chains could play a key role in improving the cost efficiency and reliability of bioenergy generation through bundled ordering and creation of storage hubs. In this study, a supply chain management model with multiple suppliers and multiple end-user communities is formulated. The proposed model enables us to analyse and compare the outcomes of adopting a cooperative coordination strategy (with a joint pay-off for communities) versus a non-cooperative coordination strategy (with individual payoffs for communities). Other peculiar attributes of the proposed model rest in the addressing of restricted ordering schedules and quantities (due to unavailability of pathways) by advocating nonlinear ordering and distribution costs (to incorporate quantity discounts) achieved through coordinated and/or collective inventories. A real biomass supply chain case study of three northernmost Nunavik communities in Quebec is considered to show the applicability of the model and provide insights for uptake of bioenergy sources in remote off-grid communities.

Dataset for off-grid micro-hydroelectric community system under drought conditions.

This submission contains the complete balanced process matrix of an off-grid community system primarily powered by a micro-hydroelectric powerplant. The system is meant to provide the needs of the community for electricity, potable water and ice. The system also considers the provision of a diesel engine generator set as a back-up to provide electricity. The data serves as inputs to simulate the performance of the system under different drought scenarios. The data provided here is in support of the co-submitted article of Aviso et al. [1].

Optimizing abnormal operations of off-grid community utility systems with fuzzy P-graph

Off-grid renewable energy systems provide opportunities to give electricity and other utilities to remote communities. Such communities may not have access to electricity, cooling, and purified water, or may require diesel-powered generators for such requirements. Mini- or micro-hydroelectric plants can be the core of facilities to meet these needs where there are sufficiently large rivers and favourable terrain. Such systems have advantages over solar or wind power in having minimal short-term fluctuations that necessitate the use of storage or back-up systems. Part of the power can be drawn off for drinking water purification or ice production. However, during drought, these facilities can suffer from a drop in output, in which case decision support would be needed to determine the optimal abnormal operating state during the crisis. A fuzzy P-graph approach is developed to determine the optimal solution in consideration of multiple product demands. Membership functions of the product demands are used to calibrate the degree of tolerable shortage based on community needs. The methodology is illustrated with a case study of a system operating under drought conditions. Results show that having a twin turbine MHP reduces the need to use a diesel back-up system, except in cases of extreme drought.

Optimal energy management strategies to reduce diesel consumption for a hybrid off-grid system

Although climate change is a reality, many off-grid communities continue to use diesel generators for electricity supply. This document presents a strategy to reduce diesel consumption in an out-of-grid system formed by renewable sources (PV-HKT-WT-DG). Three energy dispatch strategies have been proposed to verify the impact on diesel consumption and generator operating hours. In addition, different energy storage technologies (acid lead, lithium-ion, vanadium redox flow, pump storage and supercapacitor) have been considered. The HOMER software has been used to calculate the optimal size of the systems through technical-economic indicators.
 The results show that it is possible to reduce diesel consumption progressively; however, the cost of energy increases. On the other hand, when using lithium-ion batteries under charge cycle control, the penetration of the diesel generator has been greatly reduced without affecting the cost of the system. Finally, sensitivity analyzes have shown that when demand increases, diesel consumption does not increase significantly by using redox vanadium flow batteries, whereas the diesel generator operating hours decrease significantly in all systems.

Electricity Access, Community Healthcare Service Delivery, and Rural Development Nexus: Analysis of 3 Solar Electrified CHPS in Off-Grid Communities in Ghana

Over 600 million people living in sub-Saharan Africa do not have access to electricity. Modern healthcare services, including vaccine refrigeration, which require electricity are therefore lacking in such energy-deprived communities. In this work, analysis has been conducted on how electricity access can help improve healthcare service delivery and rural development, with a case study on 3 different off-grid solar photovoltaic (PV) systems in community-based health planning and services (CHPS) in Ghana. Analysis from this study showed that for the 3.0 kWp solar PV systems installed at the various sites, the in-house electricity consumptions are between 4.30 and 7.58 kWh per day. It was found out that excess electricity generation of 148–304 kWh per month is available and can be used to provide other economic services including phone charging, torchlight battery charging, and small-sized cold storage services to generate income for the maintenance of the systems, which is critical for sustainability of solar PV installations in rural poor communities. The study results also showed that electrified health facilities which are able to provide basic healthcare services have potential impact on community health outcomes and rural development. Assessment conducted at the CHPS compounds revealed that, generally, there is improvement in healthcare service delivery resulting in time savings of 15-43 hours per month for the inhabitants which can potentially be used for productive work. The time savings were more significant in females and children than in males. In many rural agro-based communities in developing countries, female and children are usually the workforce engaged in various farming activities. This paper concludes that access to electricity in CHPS compounds helps to improve community health outcomes and increases time availability for women to engage in productive work that can potentially result in significant socioeconomic activities and rural development.

Environmental sustainability of cooking fuels in remote communities: Life cycle and local impacts

Access to clean cooking fuels and technologies is essential for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals, particularly in developing countries, to minimise human health and environmental impacts. This paper assesses for the first time the environmental sustainability of household cooking, focusing on remote communities in developing countries in the Southeast Asia-Pacific (SEAP) region and considering both life cycle and local impacts. To guide rural development policies, the impacts of the following cooking fuels are considered: liquefied petroleum gas, kerosene, wood, charcoal, crop residues, biogas and electricity. Both the present situation and three future (2030) scenarios are evaluated on 18 life cycle impacts, as well as on local environmental and health impacts caused by cooking. The results show that electricity is the worst option in 13 out of 18 life cycle categories since it is generated from diesel in off-grid communities. Biogas from manure is the best fuel with 16 lowest life cycle impacts. Biomass fuels can have lower life cycle impacts than fossil fuels but they have high combustion emissions which lead to higher local environmental and health impacts. Future scenarios with higher biomass utilisation have up to 47 times lower life cycle impacts than at present, but 4–23% higher local impacts. Health impacts related to fuel combustion are higher in Vietnam, the Philippines, Cambodia, Laos and Myanmar compared to the other SEAP countries due to regional background pollutant concentrations and health trends. A fuel mix with liquefied petroleum gas, biogas and renewable electricity offers considerable reductions in 13 life cycle impacts compared to the present situation, while also reducing local health impacts by 78–97%. A self-sufficient fuel mix with local biomass and renewable electricity would reduce 17 out of 18 life cycle impacts, but all local impacts, including on health, would be 11–28% higher than at present. The results from this study can be used by policy makers and other stakeholders to develop policies for clean cooking in remote communities and reduce both environmental and human health impacts.

Development of a biomass energy dryer assisted with solar energy for farmers in off-grid communities

The objectives of this research are to design and construct a biomass energy dryer assisted with solar energy for farmers in off-grid communities and to evaluate the performance of the dryer. The dryer consists of a boiler, drying chamber and solar panels. A compressed sponge was used as a drying product. The air temperature distribution and product moisture uniformity inside the drying chamber were measured. The apparatus was tested in three energy modes, solar energy mode, biomass energy mode and biomass/solar energy assisted mode. Drying using biomass/solar energy assisted mode gave a better drying performance compared to the other modes due to the uniform moisture content and air temperature. The average temperature difference between the top and bottom tray was less than 3°C. The average moisture content between the top and bottom tray was very close, less than 0.8% db. In addition, this drying mode can reduce product contamination from smoke ash and combustion.

Interaction between local and open energy markets – guidelines for local market design

The local energy market provides a mechanism for consumers and prosumers to share or trade energy and flexibility within the community and to offer aggregated energy or flexibility to the external markets or to network operators. If a local market would be created within an off-grid community, the community members could design the market relatively freely. However, if a grid-connected community wants to gain the full benefits of the local market and all its potential revenue streams, the trading mechanisms and information exchange procedures must be designed to be compatible with the external markets. This study analyses how the arrangements in the retail, wholesale and ancillary service markets affect the local markets and their design.

Techno-economic Feasibility Study of the Gunde Teklehaymanote Micro-hydropower Plant at Tindwat River, Central Gondar, Ethiopia

Ethiopia has a high potential for water for hydro-power development. Even though there is untapped potential, the country's electricity coverage is poor. This paper presents a technical-economic feasibility study of gunde micro hydropower at the Tindwat River, Central Gondar, Ethiopia. In the techno-economics study, the analysis was made for energy modeling, economic scenarios, and sensitivity, risk, and emission analyses. The study shows that this mini-hydropower project can be developed with an installed power of 18 kW, where the Kaplan turbine is recommended. The construction of small scale hydropower in the tindwat river is technically and economically feasible with total net present cost of US $ 253537, cost of energy $0.09/kWh, simple payback period of 6.9 years, and internal rate of return 23.9%. Te result also shows that construction of hydropower curtails greenhouse gas emissions of carbon dioxide by 588.65m3 of gasoil per year. It also showed that small hydroelectric power generation from Tindwat River would improve the electricity supply to Gunde Teklehaymanote monstery and off-grid rural communities.

Off-grid energy sustainability in Nunatukavut, Labrador: Centering Inuit voices on heat insecurity in diesel-powered communities

Of 259 off-grid communities in Canada, 190 remain almost exclusively dependent on diesel-fuel for electricity generation. While a growing body of literature demonstrates the economic, environmental, and societal challenges of diesel-fired electricity, there is limited research which seeks to understand Indigenous perspectives on off-grid energy systems, despite the fact that the majority of off-grid communities identify as First Nations, Inuit, or Métis (65% or n = 169). By partnering with the NunatuKavut Community Council (NCC), this research aims to privilege the perspectives of NunatuKavut Inuit who live in the diesel-dependent communities of Black Tickle, St. Lewis, and Norman Bay in southeast Labrador. Our mixed-methods research involved community-member interviews (n = 75) and key informant interviews (n = 7). A key finding is that community-members value socio-economic contributions of diesel-generation such as employment, reliability, familiarity, and contributions to community-resilience – while also expressing concern about environmental degradation and the risk of fuel spills affecting livelihoods. Primary energy-system concerns relate to heat insecurity, and energy systems dependent on external control, support, and imports. By privileging voices of Inuit in these diesel-dependent communities, we were able to locate community identified strengths associated with local energy systems, while shifting focus to what community-members perceive as the most pressing energy-related challenges in their communities.

Assessing the Impact of Off-grid Solar Electrification in Rural Peru

In rural communities throughout the developing world, lack of access to electricity can have far-reaching impacts. Students are often unable to study after sunset for want of adequate lighting; access to technology is limited or nonexistent for lack of power to charge devices. For one off-grid community in rural Peru, this was not a satisfactory situation, and they approached Engineers Without Borders-USA (EWB-USA) to work on a solution. Ultimately, after careful assessment and an enlightening false start, the Walla Walla University chapter of EWB-USA (EWB-WWU), in partnership with the community of Japura, designed and implemented standalone solar photovoltaic systems to electrify the community. The outline of this process is discussed in this article. A monitoring trip over a year after implementation allowed insight into the project’s health and sustainability and also taught the team lessons about training, communication, socioeconomic impact, and community empowerment. This assessment and the resulting lessons are the focus of this article.

Analyzing energy options for small-scale off-grid communities: A Canadian case study

Recent studies have shown that Canada will not achieve its 2030 emission reduction targets outlined in the Paris Agreement. Canadian energy decision makers are now at a crossroad between making sound fiscal decisions and ramping up efforts to meet emission reduction commitments. Approximately 195,000 people are living in off-grid Canadian communities, with most of these communities relying on fossil-fuel based energy generation. Hybrid renewable energy systems provide a novel solution to address the high costs of off-grid energy and Canada’s emission reduction targets. To address the competing stakeholder priorities in off-grid energy planning (e.g., economic, environmental, and system performance), the authors of this paper employed a generalizable combinatorial-based alternative ranking method. Alternative energy technology combinations were simulated to calculate key performance indicator values. The framework allows decision makers to identify the most feasible energy system based on their priorities. A case study was performed with the developed framework for a small off-grid community in British Columbia, Canada. The results show that feasibility of energy system configurations vary greatly based on differing decision-making priorities. The case study also confirmed that hybrid renewable energy systems have better environmental performance compared to their fossil fuel counter parts, but at a significantly higher cost. The study further confirms that the balance between environmental and economic performance of off-grid energy systems can be improved through proper component sizing, management practices, and the integration of energy storage.

Analysis of an optimal hybrid power system for an off-grid community in Nigeria

PurposeThis study aims to analyze the effects of variations in annual real interest rates in the assessment of the techno-economic feasibility of a hybrid renewable energy system (HRES) for an off-grid community.Design/methodology/approachHybrid Optimization of Multiple Energy Resources (HOMER) software is used to propose an HRES for Abadam community in northern Nigeria. The HRES was designed to meet the basic needs of the community over a 25-year project lifespan. Based on the available energy resources in the community, photovoltaic (PV), wind turbine, diesel generator and battery were suggested for integration to serve the load requirements.FindingsWhen the annual real interest rates were taken as 10 and 8 per cent, the total amount of total energy fraction from PV, wind turbine and the diesel generator is 28, 57 and 15 per cent, respectively. At these interest rates, wind turbines contributed more energy across all months than other energy resources. The energy resource distribution for 0, 2,4 and 6 per cent annual real interest rates have a similar pattern, but PV contributed a majority of the energy.Practical implicationsThis study has used annual real interest and inflation rates dynamic behavior to determine optimal HRES for remote communities. Hence, its analysis will equip decision-makers with the necessary information for accurate planning.Originality/valueThe results of this study can be used to plan and design HRES infrastructure for off-grid communities around the world.

An Efficient Control Scheme of Self-Reliant Solar-Powered Water Pumping System Using a Three-Level DC–DC Converter

This article proposes a reliable and cost-effective solution of water pumping system for the off-grid community, where the grid supply is not available. The designed system uses an 8/6 pole, four-phase switched reluctance motor (SRM) with a midpoint converter as a drive to pump the water. A three-level boost converter (TLBC) is used as an intermediate power conversion stage between the solar photovoltaic (PV) array and motor-pump. The TLBC has many benefits such as low voltage stress across devices, small inductor size, and ability to operate with a wide voltage range, which make the proposed system highly efficient and cost-effective. An efficient control technique is developed for the designed system, which simultaneously maximizes the PV array power and equalizes the voltages across split capacitors of a midpoint converter under all working conditions. An online flux optimization with a single-pulse mode of the SRM drive is developed and implemented. The developed control scheme eliminates the need of any phase current sensor, and the motor speed is fully governed by the available PV array power. This article proposes a new technique to emulate the characteristics of centrifugal water pump using a dc generator. This technique provides a simple solution to test the centrifugal solar pumps in the laboratory. The system under study is simulated in MATLAB/Simulink, and its different responses are examined under all possible working conditions. The simulated results are authenticated by the test results obtained through a developed prototype in the laboratory.

Techno-economic analysis of storage degradation effect on levelised cost of hybrid energy storage systems

The inclusion of storage systems in renewable-based energy systems is a promising option to boost the reliability of power supply for offgrid communities. A major consideration is the cost and performance of the selected storage system. This study investigates different energy storage combinations to form a hybrid energy storage system (HESS). The goal is to exploit the complementary characteristics of each storage system. The effects of system degradation on energy output and replacement costs over a 20-year period are analysed and used in obtaining the Levelised Cost of Hybrid Energy Storage Systems (LCOHESS); which can be used as a basis for comparing the techno-economic benefits of different HESS configurations. The model is run with data for a community in the Northern Cape Province, South Africa, to show the best HESS option that could be deployed by rural electrification planners and investors, based on the value of LCOHESS obtained.

Integration and Decentralized Control of Standalone Solar Home Systems for Off-Grid Community Applications

Photovoltaic solar home systems (SHSs) provide a cost-effective solution for the limited electrification of remote off-grid communities. However, due to their standalone nature, the benefit of usage diversity cannot be extracted. In this paper, we present the power electronic interface along with the decentralized control scheme for the integration of standalone SHSs for driving community load applications. Power electronic interface consists of an isolated boost converter capable support dc bus integration, thereby it formulates a dc microgrid through the interconnection of multiple standalone SHSs. Power aggregation is achieved through decentralized controlled resource sharing based upon the resource availability and installed capacity in the individual solar home system. To ensure cost affordability and to avoid the deployment of any communication infrastructure, modified I–V droop control is designed for the intended application. Thereby, power aggregation through the proposed power electronic interface and its decentralized control allows us to extract the benefit of usage diversity and drive high power community power loads at a village scale. The overall schematic is simulated using MATLAB and scaled down model is implemented on hardware. Results of power aggregation from various resource sharing scenarios are illustrated.

Alternative heating systems for northern remote communities: Techno-economic analysis of ground-coupled heat pumps in Kuujjuaq, Nunavik, Canada

Nunavik is a subarctic remote region covering the northern third of Québec, Canada, where low efficiency and environmentally adverse diesel furnaces are currently used to meet residential heating demand. Studies focusing on building heating alternatives in subarctic climate are limited and hence, this work can help with the development of such systems in remote off-grid communities. Shallow geothermal potential was mapped for Kuujjuaq, the largest village in Nunavik. Four ground-coupled heat pump scenarios were analysed for a simulated 5-occupant residential dwelling, with heating needs of 71 MWh/year. Resulting maps show a relatively high ground potential for such cold region, ranging between 5.8 MWh/year and 22.9 MWh/year per borehole for heat exchanger lengths of 100 m–300 m. A 50-year life-cycle cost analysis of such systems reveal that a compression heat pump with electricity derived from solar photovoltaic panels has a net present cost as low as approximately CAD$179,000, representing the most economically attractive heating option in Kuujjuaq as compared to the currently subsidized, diesel furnace heating at CAD$277,000. This work verifies that shallow geothermal energy through state-of-the-art heat pumps is a financially interesting option in Kuujjuaq. Results can be extended to similar subarctic settings in Canada and worldwide.

Electricity for All: Issues, Challenges, and Solutions for Energy-Disadvantaged Communities [Scanning the Issue

Millions of people have limited or no access to electrical energy. A diverse group of scholars and activists, from individual researchers to nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), civil society organizations, UN, and increasingly to engineering and financial private sector firms, have been working on initiatives to address this issue, which is considered by many a human rights problem. Energy access is not only a challenge for developing economies but is also equally important for service to remote areas such as the Arctic, islands, and communities distant from the grid. Several governments and private institutions, as well as nongovernment organizations around the world, are now funding projects and a variety of initiatives to help impoverished communities, especially across Africa and remote regions, develop clean and sustainable energy systems. The IEEE is actively involved in addressing energy access issues through several initiatives, such as the Smart Village program, focusing on “integrating sustainable electricity, education, and entrepreneurial solutions to empower off-grid communities” ( http://ieee-smart-village.org/ ). In this special issue, we concentrate on highlighting the current state of knowledge associated with strategies for bringing clean, affordable, and sustainable electricity service reliably to energy-limited communities, based on local renewable energy (RE) sources and storage systems. Sociopolitical and economic forces as well as inclusionary and exclusionary culture or practices that often define the technical approaches and solutions offer opportunities for progress on this important problem.

Antibiotic and herbicide concentrations in household greywater reuse systems and pond water used for food crop irrigation: West Bank, Palestinian Territories

Greywater is increasingly treated and reused for agricultural irrigation in off-grid communities in the Middle East and other water scarce regions of the world. However, there is a dearth of data regarding levels of antibiotics and herbicides in off-grid greywater treatment systems. To address this knowledge gap, we evaluated levels of these contaminants in two types of greywater treatment systems on four farms in the West Bank, Palestinian Territories. Samples of household greywater (influent, n = 23), treated greywater effluent intended for agricultural irrigation (n = 23) and pumped groundwater held in irrigation water ponds (n = 12) were collected from October 2017 to June 2018. Samples were analyzed using high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) for the following antibiotics and herbicides: alachlor, ampicillin, atrazine, azithromycin, ciprofloxacin, erythromycin, linezolid, oxacillin, oxolinic acid, penicillin G, pipemidic acid, sulfamethoxazole, triclocarban, tetracycline, triflualin, and vancomycin. All tested antibiotics and herbicides were detected in greywater influent samples at concentrations ranging from 1.3 to 1592.9 ng/L and 3.1–22.4 ng/L, respectively. When comparing influent to effluent concentrations, removal was observed for azithromycin, alachlor, linezolid, oxacillin, penicillin G, pipemidic acid, sulfamethoxazole, triclocarban, and vancomycin. Removal was not observed for atrazine, ciprofloxacin, erythromycin, oxolinic acid, tetracycline, and trifluralin. Pond water also contained the majority of tested contaminants, but at generally lower concentrations. To our knowledge, this is the first description of an extensive array of antibiotics and herbicides detected in household greywater from off-grid treatment systems.

Urban shared energy systems and behaviour change − simulating a common pooled resource problem

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to test a new methodology for simulating shared electricity generation among small groups of neighbours with Ostrom’s (1994) principles of common pool resource (CPR) (human behaviour-based) efficiencies. The approach does not anticipate exclusive off-grid communities but instead, diverse energy users taking advantage of the averaging effects of aggregation, the social benefits of a CPR and direct action on emissions.Design/methodology/approachThe study tested three groups of five adjacent − or same-building − neighbours for three months to measure how electricity demand (import) is affected by an in-home display issuing nudges and sanctions by the group around a simulated (limited capacity) shared solar and battery system. A control group of six homes’ energy data was obtained for the same period.FindingsTwo groups reduced their energy demand with weak but significant correlation between stimulus and reduced energy demand and one group increased demand. There were no significant effects in time-of-use behaviours.Research limitations/implicationsThe study shows that the interaction between consumers and energy systems can in this instance be simulated with inexpensive equipment. Studying dynamic interactions between people and systems provides new data where supply simulations have been one-sided. There is support in this work that the energy supply can be presented as a rivalrous commons system.Practical implicationsUrban adjacent neighbours (and apartment occupants in the same building or campus) exhibit emergent group behaviours around electricity use conservation and time-of-use. Managing energy demand is very difficult but very important for making consumer behaviour “fit” the future supply of energy which may be unreliable and limited.Social implicationsThere are likely social benefits and other overflow benefits when neighbours can share a critical resource. There are other critical services that may be managed according to the Ostrom commons principles. The sharing group will be more resilient in terms of electricity but also in terms of social capital.Originality/valueThe work builds on the work of Rachel Coxcoon and others who have identified that groups perform better at certain challenges than individuals do. This aligns with scale and operational efficiencies in shared renewable energy infrastructure. Shaping behaviour and the generation systems together for optimal outcomes is new work.