OECD Classification Research Articles

New challenges for higher education: self-regulated learning in blended learning contexts

IntroductionThe study on self-regulated learning in blended learning (BL) environments highlights its crucial relevance for both the academic development of students and the evolution of contemporary educational methods. This research focused on conceptualizing self-regulated learning in university contexts with a BL modality, using direct student perceptions.MethodsAn inductive qualitative approach with a phenomenological design was employed. Responses from 312 undergraduate students who had completed their first or second year were analyzed; 65 participated in 10 focus groups (two per area of knowledge according to OECD classification), and 247 participated through a survey. Descriptive analysis was used to obtain a range of content and meanings associated with students’ perceptions of SRL-BL.ResultsThe study conceptualized SRL-BL as a process where students structure, monitor, and evaluate their learning using self-reflection and digital technologies, with particular emphasis on planning. Significant differences were identified between SRL-BL and traditional SRL; in face-to-face education, teacher supervision is greater, while in SRL-BL, students take on more responsibility and autonomy, developing self-management skills. Although SRL-BL fosters autonomy and responsibility, students face obstacles such as distractions from social media and leisure technologies, which affect their concentration and study planning.DiscussionIt is essential to address the new challenges students face to maintain a high level of SRL in Blended Learning environments (SRL-BL) and the strategies they use to overcome them. The need to update the concept of self-regulated learning (SRL) in the current educational context, influenced by technological advances, is concluded.

Potential Role of Bioactive Compounds: In Vitro Evaluation of the Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Activity of Fermented Milk Thistle

The group of innovative ingredients in cosmetic preparations includes bio-ferments (Bs), which are characterized by high bioactivity and biocompatibility, and one of the plants rich in bioactive compounds that has a beneficial effect on the skin and the body is Silybum marianum. Bio-ferments obtained from this plant are becoming increasingly useful as active ingredients in cosmetics. In the present study, four different bio-ferments were obtained by fermentation of pomace (B-P), extract (B-E), oil (B-O), and seeds (B-S) of milk thistle. Their biodegradability (%B), total polyphenols content (Folin–Ciocalteu method), and antimicrobial, antioxidant (DPPH, ABTS, and FRAP methods), chelating (Fe2+ ions), and reduction (Cu2+ and Fe3+ ions) properties, as well as the acidity, were evaluated. The contact angle using the sessile drop method was assessed to investigate bio-ferments’ impact on skin wettability. Finally, the content of selected phenolic acids in the Bs was evaluated using the HPLC method, while the lactic acid (LA) content was assessed using the GC-MS method. All bio-ferments were characterized by high polyphenols content (13.56 ± 0.10–15.28 ± 0.12 mmol GA/L B), chelating (0.08 ± 0.01–0.17 ± 0.01 mmol Fe2+/L B) and antioxidant activity (DPPH method, 2.41 ± 0.01–3.53 ± 0.01 mmol Tx/L B), and reducing Cu2+ and Fe3+ ions. Gallic acid, protocatechuic acid, caffeic acid, neochlorogenic acid, coumaric acid, and LA were identified in Bs. The most increased antibacterial activity for B-P was observed for a strain of Staphylococcus aureus (MIC = 250 μL/mL) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (MIC = 250 μL/mL). Simultaneously, B-S demonstrated the highest inhibitory effects against Escherichia coli (MIC = 125 μL/mL), emphasizing the varied antimicrobial profiles of these bio-ferments against different bacterial strains. Research on aerobic biodegradation demonstrated a high level of degradation (%B = 60 ± 1–65 ± 3), and all Bs were categorized as readily degradable according to the OECD classification.

Measuring food system sustainability in Ethiopia: Towards a Multi-Dimensional perspective

In the face of continuous population growth, environmental degradation, climate extremes and enduring abject poverty, ensuring sustainability of the food system is of crucial importance. As such, developing a comprehensive measure of sustainability has been of a great interest for both researchers and policy makers so as to measure progresses and evaluate the outcomes overtime. This paper attempts to assess the food system sustainability (FSSI) in Ethiopia over the past two decades from 2001 to 2020. A composite index was constructed by aggregating 24 selected food system indicators in the four food system dimensions: environmental, economic, social, and food and nutrition security. ‘Distance to a Reference’ method was employed for data normalization, whereas equal weighting and linear aggregation methods were used for aggregating the indicators in each dimension. The result showed that in a scale from 0 to 1, better score was achieved in the social dimension (0.66), followed by environmental dimension (0.52), and food and nutrition dimension (0.43), with the least recorded in the economic dimension (0.31) in 2020. The overall Food System Sustainability Index for the most recent year (2020) was estimated to be 0.46 which is far below a satisfactory level of food system sustainability (0.75) as per OECD Classification of Sustainability Indices. The result calls for policy interventions aimed at improving the overall food system sustainability in light of the four food system dimensions, in general, and the weak dimensions, in particular. Given the predictable need for more food production in the face of growing populace, interventions that enhance synergies and limit the potential trade-off among the food system outcomes, as well as striking the right balance should be the policy direction for Ethiopia.

New Information Technologies in Improving the Population’s Information Culture

In today’s information society, increasing the population’s information culture as a way of developing society and civilization becomes very important. The reason is that global transformations are taking place practically in all spheres of activity in all developed, developing, and underdeveloped countries. This article aims to assess the state of information culture in society. Methodology. The method of statistical analysis helps to assess information technology skills according to the OECD classification. The investigation revealed mutual correlations between such indicators as basic critical, strategic thinking process skills and the ability to learn actively and solve complex problems. Results. At the beginning of the study, information technology and information skills are classified according to different characteristics: operational, formal, information, strategic, technical, and cognitive abilities in using technology. The article assessed the technical skills of the population, including the ability to use computer equipment. In addition, the research set system skills, which consist of the ability to make decisions and evaluate situations. Based on the analysis results using induction and deduction methods, comprehensive problem solutions are proposed. The totality of the obtained research allows understanding of the ability of the population to use technology, which affects the development of the society’s information culture. According to the study results, it is found that there is a lack of basic process skills in society. At the same time, system skills directly affect the ability to solve various needs. At the same time, there are enough technical skills that help even repair the equipment and solve simple technical problems. It is also determined that, in general, the working population has sufficiently developed critical thinking and can solve complex problems and comprehensively assess the situation.

On the single networked links between classifications of sci-tech information. (Part 2. «The converters» between classifications. Distribution of headings semantic relation types)

For today, the RNPLS&T’s single network of classifications comprises four classification systems, i. e. State Rubicator of Sci-tech Information (GRNTI, version 2021) as the network foundation and core of the State System of Sci-tech Information, UDC (UDC tables in Russian), Classification Codes of the Higher Attestation Commission, WoS categories and subject areas, and international OECD classification. The semantic matches between the GRNTI headings and codes of the other classifications are defined as logical matching relations, extension inclusion and overlapping including that of key terms and word combinations used for indexing the thematic subject. Three types of semantic relations are determined: equivalency, hierarchy, and association. The statistics of matches in hierarchical levels of GRNTI thematic sections are cited. Based on the statistical analysis, the principal type of semantic matches is identified, along with the largest ratios for every type of relations for each of the classification under examination. The functional options for the single networked headings as the system of interrelated classifications of science objects are demonstrated as exemplified by crossrubrication of subject areas within the Critical Technologies List.

The Evolution of High Tech Companies over the Years: Some Definitions and Difference between Market-oriented Companies and Innovation-oriented Companies

High Tech companies play a fundamental role in the process of generating variety of technologies, in the development of scientific activities, in the organization of research and development activities and in the links of companies with other research institutions. In sectors High Tech the importance of economies of scale based on the specialized techniques of capitalintensive mass production; the same economies of scale move from the production phase to the research phase and the ability to transform basic research into new productions becomes the barrier to entry for industry. According to an OECD classification, the high-tech sectors include pharmaceutical, aerospace, medical, optical and precision instruments, technologies for information and communication, information technology, biotechnology, nanotechnology. In this paper after the definition of High Tech we will focus on some definitions given by authoritative scholars. Finally, we will focus on another important element to fully understand high tech companies, that is the difference between market-oriented companies and innovation-oriented companies Keywords: H

Analysis of Biological Degradation and Life Cycle Indicators of Mineral Diesel Fuel Mixtures, Containing 10% Biodiesel, Obtained by Simultaneous Oil Extraction and Transesterification

This article provides data on the environmental properties of biofuels obtained by the simultaneous extraction of oil from spoiled rapeseed and transesterification, with the addition of mineral diesel to the reaction mixture. The resulting reaction product contained 10% biodiesel: fatty acid methyl, ethyl, or butyl esters in mixtures with mineral diesel. The addition of biodiesel has been found to increase the rate of biodegradation of fuels. Such fuels are classified as partially biodegradable, according to the OECD classification. Life cycle analysis showed that the mixtures of biodiesel and mineral diesel have lower negative environmental impacts, compared to pure mineral diesel. The values of indicators such as abiotic depletion, acidification, global warming, ozone depletion, and human toxicity for these mixtures were 40–58% lower compared to the corresponding values for mineral diesel.

Ecological assessment of Burç Reservoir’s surface water (Turkey) using phytoplankton metrics and multivariate approach

The present study aimed to elucidate relationships between phytoplankton species and stressors using multivariate approaches and assess the environmental condition of Burç Reservoir?s surface water using phytoplankton metrics from September 2018 to August 2019 according to implementations of the Water Framework Directive. Burç Reservoir had a characteristic of a warm monomictic pattern. Phytoplankton functional groups (E, F, J, LO, LM, MP , P, S1 , T, and W1 ) were found in the reservoir. A significant difference was found in total biovolume values changed from 2.28 mm3 /L in November 2018 to 0.51 mm3 /L in February 2019. The first two axes of canonical correspondence analysis explained 99.2% of relationships between stressors and phytoplankton assemblages. Explanatory factors such as electrical conductivity (EC), nitrate (NO3 -N), total nitrogen (TN), water temperature, calcium (Ca+2), precipitation, total organic carbon (TOC), ortho-phosphate (o-PO4 ), and total phosphorus (TP) significantly drove the spatiotemporal distribution of phytoplankton. Weighted average regression resulted that phytoplankton species such as Gymnodinium saginatum, Snowella lacustris, Ceratium hirundinella, and Pseudanabaena limnetica were closely associated with high TP, while Fragilaria capucina, Navicula trivialis, Cymbella aspera, Ulnaria biceps, Nitzschia palea, and Pseudopediastrum boryanum closely related to the EC. Carlson's trophic state index indicated that Burç Reservoir mainly has a eutrophic characteristic with the assessment of chlorophyll a, total phosphorus, and Secchi disk depth, while it had a eu-hypertrophic according to the OECD classification. Results of the modified PTI-phytoplankton trophic index (mean = 2.37), the Med-PTI Mediterranean phytoplankton trophic index (mean = 1.96), and the Q assemblage index (mean = 2.58) indicated a moderate ecological status of Burç Reservoir. The present study confirmed that phytoplankton assemblages are closely integrated with the environmental condition of Burç Reservoir, which could be assessed by using the PTI and Med-PTI.

Tytuł profesora w postępowaniu przed Radą Doskonałości Naukowej

The Act of 20 July 2018 on Higher Education and Science is the eighth Polish normative act of statutory rank since 1920 to deal with matters concerning the title of professor, not counting separate acts and their amendments. It is also the first act based on the regulations in force before 1965 to regulate in a single act matters of higher education and science. Despite their new formulation, not all of the solutions implemented by this Act imply a full withdrawal from the regulations adopted in previous years. What is absolutely new in it, however, is the simplification of the procedure and conditions of the proceedings for conferring the title of professor through: (1) a new definition of fields of science (arts) and scientific disciplines (artistic disciplines) based, following the OECD classification, on the two-tier qualification of sciences (with some exceptions); (2) the constitution of the Council for Scientific Excellence, as a new institution, as of 1 January 2021 exclusively endowed with the right to initiate proceedings for the conferment of the title of professor (including refusal) and the subsequent process, ending with a positive or negative decision of that Council. Other solutions of this law have been subject to broader or narrower changes or have been retained in their current wording. Those of such a nature constitute answers to the following questions: (1) On whom may the title of professor be conferred, and in relation to whom, despite meeting the requirements for it, is this unacceptable, for other statutory reasons?; (2) What requirements does the legislator expect from a candidate for this academic title, and to what extent do the expectations placed on them – outstanding scientific (artistic) achievements – go beyond the framework of the previously binding standards in this regard?; (3) What determines the selection of candidates for reviewers in this procedure, and what is the procedure for selecting them?; (4) What are the conditions for a candidate’s legal protection against negative decisions by the Council for Scientific Excellence, taking into account (5) the conditions for the President of the Republic of Poland’s participation in this procedure, which have remained unchanged since 1990?

ЕКОЛОГІЧНІ ІННОВАЦІЇ ЯК ІНСТРУМЕНТ СТАЛОГО РОЗВИТКУ ТРАНСПОРТНИХ ПІДПРИЄМСТВ

The article considers the problems of ecological innovations on the transport in combination with the concept of sustainable development. The essence and specifics of ecological innovations are determined. Ecological innovations, as well as the other types of innovations, are aimed at making a profit and reduce costs, but their specificity is manifested in the social, cultural and ethical context, which is directly related to the concept of sustainable development. The main reasons of the introduction of environmental innovations on the transport are considered, namely: increasing the efficiency and functionality of the transport systems, reducing energy consumption, reduction of negative impact on the environment, widespread use of intelligent traffic management systems and tools for optimizing traffic flows. Ecological innovation is directly related to the concept of sustainable development and is seen as a tool for its implementation. This is a completely new approach to entrepreneurship, according to which not only financial results but also observance of ethical and moral norms, social justice, and environmental protection are important. Strengthening of the environmental standards is considered in the article as an important factor in the implementation of environmental innovations by the transport companies. In particular, the constant increase of the European environmental standards, which regulate the content of harmful substances in exhaust gases, forces motor transport companies to continuously modify and update existing rolling stock. The expected development of the fleet of heavy trucks in Ukraine by 2030 is considered. The examples of the ecological innovations on the transport according to the traditional OECD classification are given. The key role of management in decision-making regarding to the implementation of environmental innovations and sustainable development of the enterprise is highlighted. It is concluded that transport enterprises will actively implement environmental innovations and follow the principles of sustainable development only if they make a profit by reducing operating costs and/or improving the image of the enterprise, which is impossible without strengthening social responsibility of the society.

Role of social networking services for scientists in promoting scientific output on example of Polish representatives of social communication and media sciences

PurposeThis paper aims to answer the question of how the Polish representatives of social communication and media sciences communicate the most recent scientific findings in the media space, i.e. what types of publications are shared, what activities do they exemplify (sharing information about their own publications, leading discussions, formulating opinions), what is the form of the scientific communication created by them (publication of reference lists' descriptions, full papers, preprints and post prints) and what is the audience reception (number of downloads, displays, comments).Design/methodology/approachThe authors present the results of analysis conducted on the presence of the most recent (2017–2019) publications by the Polish representatives of the widely understood social communication and media sciences in three selected social networking services for scientists: ResearchGate, Google Scholar and Academia.edu. The analyses covered 100 selected representatives of the scientific environment (selected in interval sampling), assigned, according to the OECD classification “Field of Science”, in the “Ludzie nauki” (Men of Science) database to the “media and communication” discipline.FindingsThe conducted analyses prove a low usage level of the potential of three analysed services for scientists by the Polish representatives of social communication and media sciences. Although 60% of them feature profiles in at least one of the services, the rest are not present there at all. From the total of 113 identified scientists' profiles, as little as 65 feature publications from 2017 to 2019. Small number of alternative metrics established in them, implies, in turn, that if these metrics were to play an important role in evaluation of the value and influence of scientific publications, then this evaluation for the researched Polish representatives of social communication and media sciences would be unfavourable.Originality/valueThe small presence of the Polish representatives of the communication and media sciences in three analysed services shows that these services may be – for the time being – only support the processes of managing own scientific output. Maybe this quite a pessimistic image of scientists' activities in the analysed services is conditioned by a simple lack of the need to be present in electronic channels of scientific communication or the lack of trust to the analysed services, which, in turn, should be linked to their shortcomings and flaws. However, unequivocal confirmation of these hypotheses might be brought by explorations covering a larger group of scientists, and complemented with survey studies. Thus, this research may constitute merely a starting point for further explorations, including elaboration of good practices with respect to usage of social media by scientists.

Rola serwisów internetowych jako narzędzi oceny dorobku naukowego. Przykład wykorzystania serwisów Google Scholar, ResearchGate i Academia.edu przez wybranych polskich reprezentantów nauk o komunikacji społecznej i mediach

The Role of Social Networking Services as Tools for Evaluating Scientific Achievements. An Example of Using Google Scholar, ResearchGate and Academia.edu by Selected Polish Representatives of Social Communication and Media Sciences Activities of academic staff members in the network environment may have various forms – from passive presence, through participation in discussions, to publishing of the latest research results in social media. In this paper, the authors present the results of analyses conducted on the presence of the most recent (2017–2019) publications by the representatives of the widely-understood social communication and media sciences in three selected networking services for scientists: Google Scholar, ResearchGate, and Academia.edu. In the face of the results, they are trying to answer the question of how the representatives of this discipline communicate the most recent scientific findings in the media space, i.e.: what types of publications are shared, what is the form of the scientific communication created by them (publication of reference lists’ descriptions, full papers, pre-prints and post prints), and what is the audience reception (number of downloads, displays, comments). The analyses covered 100 selected representatives of the scientific environment (selected in interval sampling), assigned, according to the OECD classification, in the Scientists (“Ludzie nauki”) database and the “media and communication” discipline.

Tools for implementing smart specialization strategies in the European Union member states

The main tools for the formation and implementation of Innovation Policy and Cohesion Policy, which are used to achieve the priorities set in smart specialization strategies at the national and regional levels, are studied. The peculiarities of their use in the context of individual regions of the EU are analyzed, taking into account the trends and development needs of each individual region or country; depending on the selected areas of smart specialization; depending on the type of region according to the OECD classification by economic profile, etc. The most common tools for implementing smart specialization priorities are identified: supporting the functioning of clusters, improving business start-up procedures, public procurement, financial assistance, cooperation with other regions, creating various platforms to stimulate cooperation between enterprises, scientists and authorities, improving the training processes, etc. Two types of cluster policy are analyzed: funding support activities, such as cluster mapping and supporting cluster development, without identifying priority areas (such as the Czech Republic); support for certain areas of activity. Two types of public procurement are outlined: those that promote innovation, i.e. the purchase of direct results of innovation activities, and innovative, i.e. the purchase of an innovation process, the results of which are not yet presented on the market. Forms of providing financial assistance to economic entities in the development of innovations that use certain regions of the EU in their smart specialization strategies are given, including lending, subsidies, access to project funding programs, etc. The tools of regional innovative development in the context of traditional, new and experimental tools and their contribution to the generation, dissemination and use of knowledge are systematized. The active and passive tools for supporting the development of innovations in the field of small and medium business and the peculiarities of their use at the global, regional and micro levels are presented.

Evaluation of the Toxicity of the Ethanol Extract 70% of the Bark of Terminalia macroptera (Combretaceae) on Whistar Rats

Nowadays, many medicinal plants have proved effective in combating the phenomenon of bacterial multi-resistance against conventional antibiotics. However, the use of these plants, traditionally is done without precise doses. And this inaccuracy of dose is a real problem of traditional medicine. Thus prospecting for empirically administered plant extract requires dosage monitoring to avoid the risk of a fatal therapeutic accident. It is in this context that the study of the toxicity of Terminalia macroptera which presents itself as an anti-infectious agent, capable of overcoming certain strains of antibiotic-resistant bacteria has been initiated. The objective of this study is to evaluate the toxicity of 70% ethanol extract of T.macroptera in rats and to deduce its safety. With regard to the evaluation of the toxicity, rats were used whose mass varies between 100 and 170 grams. Then, using OECD Guideline 425, (2006), acute toxicity was achieved. Then the 100, 300 and 500 mg / kg bm doses were used in sub-acute toxicity to evaluate biochemical and hematological parameters. The results show an LD50> 5000 mg / kg bm. Therefore, according to the OECD classification, the hydroethanolic extract belongs to category 5, non-toxic substances. Also, the biochemical and hematological results revealed that the extract did not change at any time at P <0.05, biochemical marker levels (UREE, ASAT, ALAT, CK and LDH), reflecting vital organs of the body. So the extract would have no effect on the heart, liver and kidneys. 70% ethanol extract of T. macroptera would be safe for use as a drug and therefore could contribute to the production of Traditionally Enhanced Medicines (MTAs).

Library and Information Science Vis-À-Vis Web Science in the Light of the OECD Fields of Science and Technology Classification

Abstract Aims: The paper focuses on the methodological frames of Library and Information Sciences vis-à-vis Web Science in the light of the OECD Fields of Science and Technology Classification. The roots of Library Science and Information Science in Humanities and Social Sciences are described. The technological revolution which took place during and after World War II enabled the development of a new mathematics- and engineering-oriented environment for information. On this basis such new research areas like Web Science emerged. It led to a change towards an interdisciplinary character of Information Science. Method: The OECD Fields of Science and Technology Classification was analysed from the point of view of the Library and Information Science’s place in this classification. Solutions: In the OECD Fields of Science and Technology Classification Library Science has its independent place within Social Sciences while Information Science is dispersed between three main sections. It confirms the interdisciplinary character of Information Science and sets up its name as a superior covering traditional Information Science and all of new mathematics- and engineering- based research areas dealing with information. Although the name Web Science is not mentioned in this classification, we can assume that it is a sub-discipline of Information Science in the light of the OECD classification. Polish implications are mentioned.

Trade interdependence between Russia vs. the European Union and China within the context of the competitiveness of the Russian economy

Research background: The position of a country in the international division of labour is determined by the competitiveness of its trade, the structure of which may both reveal and perpetuate the comparative advantages possessed. This is particularly true for Dutch disease economies such as Russia. Recently, economic literature has seen a growing interest in the topic of Russia?s economic relations with the European Union and China. This article is aimed at being the Author?s contribution to this discussion.
 Purposes of the article: (1) to discuss the existing trade interdependence between Russia and the EU28, and Russia and China; (2) to try to assess the extent to which the current structure of Russian trade with these two partners corresponds with the competitiveness of the Russian economy.
 Methods: An in-depth analysis of Russia-EU28 and Russia-China trade interdependencies in 2007-2015 has been conducted, with emphasis on the categories of goods within the spectrum from low- to high-technology, according to the OECD classification. Furthermore, in order to analyse Russia?s competitive profile with regard to the same categories of goods, Balassa?s methodology of revealed comparative advantages has been applied.
 Findings & Value added: In the recent years, a growing importance of China in Russian trade turnover can be observed, being the effect of dynamic growth of Chinese economy, cooling political relations between Moscow and Brussels and the drop in oil prices in international markets. The existing structure of Russian trade with the EU28 and China seems likely to preserve its traditional competitive advantages in the medium-low-technology goods and oil, which, in turn, will only further exacerbate the negative consequences of the so-called Dutch disease affecting the Russian economy.

International trade of environmental goods in gravity models

Environmental goods are goods used or produced by industry that reduce air and water pollution and optimize the use of resources in production. Despite several Sustainable Development Goals explicitly calling for resilient and sustainable development, the diffusion of such goods is still low, especially in developing countries. Only sporadic research on the determinants of international trade of environmental goods is available. Based on the OECD classification of environmental goods, this gap is filled by adopting a gravity model, using trade data over a time span of 15 years from 1999 to 2014 across 71 countries. The central message of this paper is that environmental regulatory stringency is a key determinant of environmental goods trade. It is specifically provided evidence that a substitution effect exists between environmental regulation stringency and trade of environmental goods. In line with empirical literature on traditional gravity models, increased capacity to innovate, cultural ties, geographical proximity and financial uncertainty also play a role.

Limited Fiscal Autonomy of Croatian Large Cities

By using the OECD classification system, this paper explores to what level Croatian large cities control their tax revenues and specifies the ability of these authorities to introduce taxes and independently generate revenue. The index of fiscal control of Croatian large cities has been calculated and compared with that index of all remaining local government units. The results of our analysis show that in 2015 25 large cities had a slightly higher level of fiscal autonomy when compared with all remaining 531 local government units in Croatia.

Long-Term Comparative Advantages of the Eurasian Economic Union Member States in International Trade

Abstract On 1st January 2015 the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) - a new integration block comprising initially Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Russia, and later that year also Armenia and Kyrgyzstan - appeared on the world map. This paper endeavors to identify the EAEU countries’ long-term international comparative advantages within four basic groups of goods according to the OECD classification of manufacturing industries based on technology intensity. The analysis, using B. Balassa’s RCA methodology and covering the years 2000-2014, indicates that these countries lack competitiveness, with none of them possessing any RCAs in the high-technology category whereas in the medium-hightechnology category - only Belarus. In contrast, all the EAEU countries fared the best in the medium-low-technology category, which is mostly attributable to the resources-based character of their economies. Surprisingly, dramatically low international competitiveness was recorded by Kazakhstan and Russia.

A new approach to estimation of the R&D–innovation–productivity relationship

ABSTRACTWe apply a generalized structural equation model approach to the estimation of the relationship between R&D, innovation and productivity that focuses on the potentially crucial heterogeneity across sectors. The model accounts for selectivity and handles the endogeneity of this relationship in a recursive framework which allows for feedback effects from productivity to future R&D investment. Our approach enables the estimation of the different equations as one system, allowing the coefficients to differ across sectors, and also permits us to take cross-equation correlation of the errors into account. Employing a panel of Swedish manufacturing and service firms observed in three consecutive Community Innovation Surveys in the period 2008–2012, our full-information maximum likelihood estimates show that many key channels of influence among the model's components vary meaningfully in their statistical significance and magnitude across six different sectors based on the OECD classification on technological and knowledge intensity. These results cast doubt on earlier research which does not allow for sectoral heterogeneity.