Occurrence In Europe Research Articles

Distribution and ecological traits of a rare and threatened fungus Hericium flagellum in Poland with the prediction of its potential occurrence in Europe

Hericium flagellum is a highly host-dependent wood-inhabiting fungus in Europe. Its occurrence is strongly connected to the distribution of silver fir ( Abies alba ). We analysed available data describing ecological factors, especially habitat, substrate preferences and phenology, which are regarded as drivers of H . flagellum occurrence. We also implemented ecological niche modelling to determine the potential range of the fungus. More than half of H . flagellum records (57%) were found in high conservation value areas, on fallen trunks of silver fir trees. The basidiomata were predominantly recorded between August and late November. Distribution of the tree host, precipitation in the driest month, isothermality and annual mean temperature were the most decisive factors influencing H . flagellum occurrence. We conclude that the disjunctive range at present, the risk of tree host extinction linked to habitat loss, and the limited dispersal of H . flagellum propagules are the main threats to this species. • Hericium flagellum is a rare fungus, closely tied to the dead wood of silver fir. • Modelling tools were applied to show the potential range of H. flagellum in Europe. • Hericium flagellum occurs mainly in the uplands, sub-mountain, and mountain regions. • Most of H. flagellum records were found in forests with high conservation regime. • Hericium flagellum should be listed on the European Red List of Fungi.

Why Hantavirus Prevalence Does Not Always Increase With Host Density: Modeling the Role of Host Spatial Behavior and Maternal Antibodies.

For wildlife diseases, one often relies on host density to predict host infection prevalence and the subsequent force of infection to humans in the case of zoonoses. Indeed, if transmission is mainly indirect, i.e., by way of the environment, the force of infection is expected to increase with host density, yet the laborious field data supporting this theoretical claim are often absent. Hantaviruses are among those zoonoses that have been studied extensively over the past decades, as they pose a significant threat to humans. In Europe, the most widespread hantavirus is the Puumala virus (PUUV), which is carried by the bank vole and causes nephropathia epidemica (NE) in humans. Extensive field campaigns have been carried out in Central Finland to shed light on this supposed relationship between bank vole density and PUUV prevalence and to identify other drivers for the infection dynamics. This resulted in the surprising observation that the relationship between bank vole density and PUUV prevalence is not purely monotonic on an annual basis, contrary to what previous models predicted: a higher vole density does not necessary result in a higher infection prevalence, nor in an increased number of humans reported having NE. Here, we advance a novel individual-based spatially-explicit model which takes into account the immunity provided by maternal antibodies and which simulates the spatial behavior of the host, both possible causes for this discrepancy that were not accounted for in previous models. We show that the reduced prevalence in peak years can be attributed to transient immunity, and that the density-dependent spatial vole behavior, i.e., the fact that home ranges are smaller in high density years, plays only a minor role. The applicability of the model is not limited to the study and prediction of PUUV (and NE) occurrence in Europe, as it could be easily adapted to model other rodent-borne diseases, either with indirect or direct transmission.

First report of Scaphoideus titanus for Madeira Island

This is the first report of Scaphoideus titanus, the main vector of flavescence dorée, for Madeira (Portugal) and also for Macaronesia. This new record currently represents its southernmost occurrence in Europe. This leafhopper is present in most of the primary wine production regions in the north of Madeira island. There were no symptoms of flavescence dorée disease during the monitoring period from 2010 to 2017. The ability of S. titanus to survive in regions with a subtropical climate suggests that it may also live in the most meridional areas of the Mediterranean region where, until now, it has been absent.

The European spring snail genus Marstoniopsis (Gastropoda: Amnicolidae): Eastward extension likely driven by Pleistocene glaciations

ABSTRACT Although the historical and modern distributional range of the European spring snail genus Marstoniopsis has already been considered in the context of Pleistocene/Holocene glaciations, many details of the eastern limits of these taxa remain uncertain. Also, the taxonomic status of some nominal species commonly attributed to this genus needs to be clarified. In the present study, a literature review of Marstoniopsis and the addition of newly found populations and fossils allow a reconstruction of the geographical and population history of this genus. Results indicate that the majority of the range of Marstoniopsis is inhabited by M. insubrica (Küster, 1853), though several local endemic taxa probably represent distinct species: M. armoricana (Paladilhe, 1869), M. croatica Schütt, 1974, M. vrbasi Bole et Velkovrh, 1987 and M. graeca (Radoman, 1978). The populations in the middle parts of the Dnieper and Volga rivers mark the south-eastern limit of the distribution of Marstoniopsis. Localities along with the eastern distribution limit of the range in European Russia and Ukraine mostly conform to the configuration of the zone of maximal (Riss-Saale-Dnieper) glaciation. Fossil records from Hungary and Slovakia show that Marstoniopsis inhabited central Europe (where these snails are now absent) at least during the early Holocene. It is here suggested that during the whole Pleistocene and Holocene the historical range of Marstoniopsis pulsated in accordance with the area size occupied by the glaciations. The overall geographic range of these snails includes the basins of rivers flowing into the North, Baltic, Black and Caspian seas. Isolated occurrences in Europe are mainly in closed lakes in mountainous areas of the Alps and the Balkans and are considered as refugia in the southern side of the Alps.

Hydrate occurrence in Europe: Risks, rewards, and legal frameworks

In January of this year (2020), a major scientific study (‘the Minshull report’) announced that gas hydrate reservoirs were found in many offshore areas across Europe. The European Commission is now considering a policy view to commercialize the development and extraction of methane gas from European offshore areas. Affirmation from the European Commission that offshore methane hydrates are too useful and too valuable to forego development could initiate a global response to adopt offshore methane hydrates as a new source of natural gas for heating, for electrical power supplies, and for potential new revenues.The upside? The potential rewards from offshore methane hydrates are multi-fold. Coastal states are surrounded in methane hydrate resources that if responsibly developed could enable vast amounts of methane (natural gas) to be produced for decades or centuries beyond the timelines of conventional natural gas assets. There are also massive volumes of fresh water trapped in hydrates that could aid in fighting droughts and desertification.The downside? There are novel foreseeable risks that might result from those commercial methane hydrate activities. The climate change risks and geo-physical hazards from offshore methane hydrates are quite distinct from both conventional and unconventional hydrocarbons. There are new challenges to achieving safety and sustainability.In review, this paper both welcomes the discovery and confirmation of offshore methane hydrates in European waters and also raises concerns that more research is required on the optimal policy strategies for the known and foreseeable risks to best enable safe and sustainable policy choices.

Hydrate Occurrence in Europe: Risks, Rewards, and Legal Frameworks

In January of this year (2020), a major scientific study (‘the Minshull report’) announced that gas hydrate reservoirs were found in many offshore areas across Europe. The European Commission is now considering a policy view to commercialize the development and extraction of methane gas from European offshore areas. Affirmation from the European Commission that offshore methane hydrates are too useful and too valuable to forego development could initiate a global response to adopt offshore methane hydrates as a new source of natural gas for heating, for electrical power supplies, and for potential new revenues. The upside? The potential rewards from offshore methane hydrates are multi-fold. Coastal states are surrounded in methane hydrate resources that if responsibly developed could enable vast amounts of methane (natural gas) to be produced for decades or centuries beyond the timelines of conventional natural gas assets. There are also massive volumes of fresh water trapped in hydrates that could aid in fighting droughts and desertification. The downside? There are novel foreseeable risks that might result from those commercial methane hydrate activities. The climate change risks and geo-physical hazards from offshore methane hydrates are quite distinct from both conventional and unconventional hydrocarbons. There are new challenges to achieving safety and sustainability. In review, this paper both welcomes the discovery and confirmation of offshore methane hydrates in European waters and also raises concerns that more research is required on the optimal policy strategies for the known and foreseeable risks to best enable safe and sustainable policy choices.

Early Miocene marsupialiforms, gymnures, and hedgehogs from Ribesalbes-Alcora Basin (Spain)

AbstractMaterials from the localities of Araia d'Alcora in the Ribesalbes-Alcora Basin (Spain, early Miocene, Biozone C, MN4) have yielded an assemblage of erinaceids and metatherians, relatively rich for an Iberian site. The most common erinaceid is the gymnureGalerix symeonidisiDoukas, 1986, present in almost all of the studied sites. Other erinaceids in the faunal list are possibly an indeterminate species of the generaLantanotheriumFilhol, 1888 andAtelerixPomel, 1848, in what constitutes one of their oldest occurrences in Europe. Metatherians are represented by the herpetotheriidAmphiperatherium frequens erkertshofense(Koenigswald, 1970). The material described here was partially published by Furió and colleagues in 2012. We complete it with new material from the known localities and with material from new sites. We describe for the first time the lower dentition of this taxon in this basin, thus increasing knowledge of the high variability of its decidual molars. In addition, the climatic preferences of the speciesA. frequens(von Meyer, 1846), which was probably less strict in its humidity requirements than previously thought, are also discussed.

New Pliocene records of plant fossil-taxa from NW Portugal and their relevance for the assessment of diversity loss patterns in the late Cenozoic of Europe

The section of São Pedro da Torre (NW Portugal) is relevant because its rich pollen content, chronologically correlated to the late Pliocene assemblages of the reference section of Rio Maior. The purpose of this study was to carry out, for the first time in the area, a taxonomic analysis of the carpological remains and integrate the results with those of the previous palynological studies. Our carpological analysis pointed out several taxa not recorded previously in the area, mostly belonging to genera extirpated from Europe, such as Azolla cf. aspera, Hypericum tertiaerum, Itea europaea, Eurya stigmosa, Proserpinaca reticulata, Symplocos casparyi, Symplocos germanica and Tetraclinis salicornioides. This taxonomic composition was only detected in Piacenzian deposits from Italy, the area of southern Europe where the chronological sequence of fruit and seed assemblages is less discontinuous. For most of these taxa the occurrence at São Pedro da Torre constitutes a westward extension of the distribution during Neogene. Symplocos germanica occurs for the first time in the Pliocene and is recorded much more westwards and southwards than previously known. The integrated plant record shades light on the vegetation, paleoenvironments and plant extirpation patterns throughout the Pliocene in the Iberian Peninsula. Although limited, the results from this contribution are intended to stimulate the search for fruit and seed assemblages in Portugal as well as in similar poorly studied areas, where Pliocene successions keep a future potentiality in documenting further the late occurrences in Europe of extirpated plant taxa, which are relevant for paleoclimatic and biogeographic reconstructions.

Prediction of plant species occurrence as affected by nitrogen deposition and climate change on a European scale

Plant species occurrence in Europe is affected by changes in nitrogen deposition and climate. Insight into potential future effects of those changes can be derived by a model approach based on field-based empirical evidence on a continental scale. In this paper, we present a newly developed empirical model PROPS, predicting the occurrence probabilities of plant species in response to a combination of climatic factors, nitrogen deposition and soil properties. Parameters included were temperature, precipitation, nitrogen deposition, soil pH and soil C/N ratio. The PROPS model was fitted to plant species occurrence data of about 800,000 European relevés with estimated values for pH and soil C/N ratio and interpolated climate and modelled N deposition data obtained from the Ensemble meteo data set and EMEP model results, respectively. The model was validated on an independent data set. The test of ten species against field data gave an average Pearson’s r-value of 0.79.PROPS was applied to a grassland and a heathland site to evaluate the effect of scenarios for nitrogen deposition and climate change on the Habitat Suitability Index (HSI), being the average of the relative probabilities, compared to the maximum probability, of all target species in a habitat. Results for the period 1930–2050 showed that an initial increase and later decrease in nitrogen deposition led to a pronounced decrease in HSI, and with dropping nitrogen deposition to an increase of the HSI. The effect of climate change appeared to be limited, resulting in a slight increase in HSI.

Cardamine occulta Hornem. in Hungary, and other stowaways of the ornamental plant trade

During the study of the weed flora of garden centers in Hungary (among 2017–2020), remarkable populations of Cardamine occulta Hornem., a new alien for the Hungarian flora were found. C. occulta was present altogether in 51 of the 53 visited sites. Dominantly the regularly irrigated and continuously moist microhabitats (pots, containers, muddy surfaces of geotextile-covered beds etc.) were colonized. During the revision of our recently collected specimens, deposited in JPU and DE herbaria as Cardamine hirsuta L., further individuals proved to identical with this till overlooked species. One of them (27.08.2004., Heves county: Eger [8088.3; 8188.1], coll. by A. Schmotzer, deposited in DE collection) proved to the third documented occurrence in Europe, comparing to the accessed literature data. Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. and Urtica membranacea Poir. are also new aliens for the Hungarian flora. Several introduced individuals of these taxa were found in containers of imported thermophilous woody ornamentals at 4 and 2 sites, respectively. Tens of individuals of Eclipta prostrata were also found in a sapling-bed at another site. New populations of scarce or rare Euphorbia prostrata Aiton, E. serpens Kunth and Veronica peregrina L. were also documented.

European agreements for nature conservation need to explicitly address wolf-dog hybridisation

Hybridisation between wolves and dogs is increasingly reported in Europe. Nonetheless, no systematic survey has ever been attempted at the continental scale. We made the first assessment of wolf-dog hybridisation (WDH) occurrence in Europe and analysed how the phenomenon is addressed by international legislation and managed at the country level. We found that WDH is reported in all nine extant European wolf populations, and in 21 out of 26 countries for which we received information. The two main international legal instruments (i.e., the Habitats Directive and the Bern Convention) do not explicitly mention the threat posed by hybridisation but do provide guidance promoting control of free-ranging wolf-dog hybrids. However, we recorded poor compliance with such recommendations in most European countries, and a lack of coordination in addressing WDH among countries sharing the same wolf population. Alarmingly, we revealed a lack of well-designed and implemented country-wide genetic surveys to detect and monitor hybridisation, both relevant pre-requisites to effectively implement WDH management. By recommending criteria for an operative definition of “hybrid”, we also suggest improvements to enhance WDH-related policy at the European scale.

The last known freshwater coelacanths: New Late Cretaceous mawsoniid remains (Osteichthyes: Actinistia) from Southern France.

Coelacanths are iconic fishes represented today by a single marine genus. The group was a little bit more diversified in the Mesozoic, with representatives in marine and continental environments in the Late Cretaceous. Here we describe isolated skull bones of the last know freshwater coelacanths found in several fossil sites from the Early Campanian to the Early Maastrichtian of Southern France (in the Departments of Aude, Bouches-du-Rhône, Hérault, and Var). The sample does not allow distinguishing different species, and all material is referred to Axelrodichthys megadromos Cavin, Valentin, Garcia originally described from the locality of Ventabren in Southern France. A reconstruction of the skull is proposed. Previously unrecognized features are described, including parts of the postparietal portion of the skull, of the suspensorium and of the mandible. The new data confirm the assignation of the species to the mawsoniids, and more specifically to Axelrodichthys. A cladistic analysis scoring new character states provides a similar topology than a previous analysis, i.e. A. megadromos is placed in a polytomy with Axelrodichthys araripensis and Lualabaea lerichei, two species from the Early Cretaceous of Brazil and from the Late Jurassic of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, respectively. A. megadromos appears to have been restricted to freshwater environments, to the contrary of oldest Western Gondwanan representatives of the family that were able to live in brackish and marine waters. A. megadromos is the last representative of the mawsoniids and its occurrence in Europe is probably the result of a dispersal event from Western Gondwana that happened somewhen in the Cretaceous. Based on the available data, the mawsoniids went extinct in the mid-Maastrichthian, i.e. before the end-Cretaceous mass extinction. But it is possible that the fossil record of this family, which has been only recently recognized in Late Cretaceous European deposits, will geographically and stratigraphically widen with further discoveries.

<span lang="EN-GB">New site of Cordulegaster heros Theischinger, 1979 in western Slovakia – the confirmation of its northern border of range of occurrence in Europe (Odonata: Cordulegastridae)</span>

This paper is a short report based on material collected in the scope of hydrobiological research in Western Carpathians: Cordulegaster heros Theischinger, 1979 was recorded in west Slovakia, approximately 90 km E-NE of Bratislava, Slovakia.

Syringomyelia and Chiari Syndrome Registry: advances in epidemiology, clinical phenotypes and natural history based on a North Western Italy cohort.

Syringomyelia and Chiari Syndrome are classified as rare diseases, but current known occurrence in Europe is missing. The increased ability to diagnose these pathologies by magnetic resonance imaging and its widespread availability has led to an increase of reported cases, often asymptomatic, with the need to standardize definitions, diagnostic criteria and treatments. We present shared Interregional Recommendations developed with the primary aim to estimate Syringomyelia and Chiari Syndrome prevalence and incidence in North Western Italy, with special reference to symptomatic forms. An agreement for the standardization of definitions, classifications, diagnostic criteria and surgical Recommendations was reached by the multidisciplinary Interregional Piemonte and Valle d'Aosta Chiari-Syringomyelia Consortium (Delphi method); next, in 2011 a census for Syringomyelia and Chiari Malformation was performed through the Interregional Piemonte and Valle d'Aosta Rare Disease Registry, integrated by a dedicated form in order to estimate prevalence and incidence. 436 patients, 292 females, met shared interregional diagnostic criteria. Syringomyelia prevalence was estimated in 4.84:100 000; Chiari Malformation prevalence was 7.74:100 000; incidence was 0.82:100 000 and 3.08:100 000 respectively. Demographics, neuroradiological parameters and aetiology were reported (in symptomatic and asymptomatic forms). Finally, symptoms and signs, familiar and natural history were analyzed. First Italian epidemiological data (prevalence, incidence) on Chiari and syringomyelia was collected, according to shared diagnostic Recommendations. Future perspectives include the adoption of these Recommendations at national level to standardize the access to diagnosis and care process and promote multicenter clinical trials.

First record and DNA barcodes of the invasive blue-coloured spiny-cheek crayfish Faxonius limosus (Rafinesque, 1817) (Decapoda: Cambaridae)

This contribution presents first record of a blue colour morph of spiny-cheek crayfish, Faxonius limosus (Rafinesque, 1817). Two unusually coloured individuals were caught in Poland, in two different locations, separated from each other by approximately 500 km and belonging to different river catchments (Oder and Vistula), within the range of the species occurrence in Europe. Taxonomic identification of collected crayfish has been confirmed by the standard DNA barcoding procedure. Although blue coloured forms of crayfish have been previously described within the Cambaridae family, collected individuals are the first records of blue colouration within F. limosus. It is recommended to supplement identification keys with a new colour form of the species, which, while characteristic dark red bands are not clear, may cause mistakes in recognition of exotic, aquarium as well as native species.

ANALYSIS OF RADON TIME SERIES RECORDED IN SLOVAK AND CZECH CAVES FOR THE DETECTION OF ANOMALIES DUE TO SEISMIC PHENOMENA.

Anomalies in the radon (222Rn) releases in underground environments are one of the phenomena that can be observed before earthquake occurrence. Continuous measurements of radon activity concentration, and of meteorological parameters that influence the gas emission, were performed in three Slovak and Czech caves during 1-y period (1 July 2016-30 June 2017). The radon activity concentration in caves shows seasonal variations, with maxima reached during summer months. The anomalies in the radon time series are identified using a combination of three mathematical methods: multiple linear regression, empirical mode decomposition and support vector regression. The radon anomaly periods were compared with earthquake occurrences in Europe. Coincidences between both phenomena were found, since all monitored caves reflect contemporaneous local tectonic changes. The results indicate that radon continuous monitoring could assist a better understanding of radon emissions, along active tectonic structures, during seismic events.

The spread of the red-billed leiothrix (Leiothrix lutea) in Europe: The conquest by an overlooked invader?

The red-billed leiothrix (Leiothrix lutea) is an Asian-native passerine which has been introduced across several regions of the world, including Europe. Although it is widely considered to be among the most harmful bird invaders, its occurrence in Europe is still understudied. Here, we aim to assess its distribution and population status in Europe. We obtained records for ten countries distributed throughout 37 spatially independent regions. The species is already established in France, Italy, Spain, and Portugal. The distribution range in Europe almost doubled between the periods of 2000–2008 and 2009–2017. A species distribution model showed that leiothrix presence probability increases with increasing combined values of human population density, spatial trend of occurrences, minimum temperature of the coldest month, precipitation of the driest quarter and precipitation seasonality. We identified two main introduction periods: late nineteenth and late twentieth centuries. In 1997, the species trade started to be regulated, resulting in a reduction of the imported numbers during the following years. Thus, the recent increase of the distribution range may be mostly related with self-dispersion. There has apparently been a great introduction rate near large urban areas which resulted in a broad spread into adjacent forests. The relationship between climatic traits and leiothrix presence may be due to its feeding ecology, as it often forages in wet soil and is limited by the availability of fruits and invertebrates. Future climate change scenarios can add further uncertainty to the invasion process by the leiothrix in Europe.

Hydrate occurrence in Europe: A review of available evidence

Abstract Large national programs in the United States and several Asian countries have defined and characterised their marine methane hydrate occurrences in some detail, but European hydrate occurrence has received less attention. The European Union-funded project “Marine gas hydrate – an indigenous resource of natural gas for Europe” (MIGRATE) aimed to determine the European potential inventory of exploitable gas hydrate, to assess current technologies for their production, and to evaluate the associated risks. We present a synthesis of results from a MIGRATE working group that focused on the definition and assessment of hydrate in Europe. Our review includes the western and eastern margins of Greenland, the Barents Sea and onshore and offshore Svalbard, the Atlantic margin of Europe, extending south to the northwestern margin of Morocco, the Mediterranean Sea, the Sea of Marmara, and the western and southern margins of the Black Sea. We have not attempted to cover the high Arctic, the Russian, Ukrainian and Georgian sectors of the Black Sea, or overseas territories of European nations. Following a formalised process, we defined a range of indicators of hydrate presence based on geophysical, geochemical and geological data. Our study was framed by the constraint of the hydrate stability field in European seas. Direct hydrate indicators included sampling of hydrate; the presence of bottom simulating reflectors in seismic reflection profiles; gas seepage into the ocean; and chlorinity anomalies in sediment cores. Indirect indicators included geophysical survey evidence for seismic velocity and/or resistivity anomalies, seismic reflectivity anomalies or subsurface gas escape structures; various seabed features associated with gas escape, and the presence of an underlying conventional petroleum system. We used these indicators to develop a database of hydrate occurrence across Europe. We identified a series of regions where there is substantial evidence for hydrate occurrence (some areas offshore Greenland, offshore west Svalbard, the Barents Sea, the mid-Norwegian margin, the Gulf of Cadiz, parts of the eastern Mediterranean, the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea) and regions where the evidence is more tenuous (other areas offshore Greenland and of the eastern Mediterranean, onshore Svalbard, offshore Ireland and offshore northwest Iberia). We provide an overview of the evidence for hydrate occurrence in each of these regions. We conclude that around Europe, areas with strong evidence for the presence of hydrate commonly coincide with conventional thermogenic hydrocarbon provinces.

<p class="Body">Are polymorphic species of Uropodina (Acari: Mesostigmata) more successful evolutionarily?—A case study of closely related species from the genus Oodinychus Berlese, 1917 based on DNA sequences

The study presented in this research paper is the first taxonomic investigation focusing on Uropodina (Acari: Mesostigmata) mites with a brief discussion of the genetic differences of two very closely related species from the genus Oodinychus Berlese, 1917, i.e. O. ovalis (C.L. Koch, 1839) and O. karawaiewi (Berlese, 1903). These two morphologically similar species are quite common and they have a wide range of occurrence in Europe. They also live in almost the same types of habitat. However, O. ovalis usually exhibits higher abundance and frequency of occurrence. The major aim of the study was to carry out a comparative analysis of the systematic position, morphological and biological differences, as well as habitat preferences and distribution of O. ovalis and O. karawaiewi. The next aim was to ascertain whether the differences in number and frequency of these species may stem from the genetic differences at the molecular level (16S rDNA and COI). The study shows that O. ovalis, which is a more abundant species than O. karawaiewi, turned out to be genetically more polymorphic.

Dispersal history of the golden jackal (Canis aureus moreoticus Geoffroy, 1835) in Europe and possible causes of its recent population explosion.

BackgroundData on the historical distribution of the golden jackal in Europe and its primary habitats are scarce. There are many new data on the population explosion and the rapid spread of the in Europe. However, the main factors for this expansion, the core population and its routes of dispersal, remain controversial or insufficiently studied.New informationThis study provides a profound analysis of the history of the jackal’s (Canis aureus moreoticus Geoffroy, 1835) occurrence in Europe, the factors limiting or those triggering its expansion on the continent. The analysis shows that the timing of the species appearance in Europe still remains unclear. Historical data show that the species is a typical inhabitant of South-Eastern Europe, with some pulsations within its core area, as well as extensions to the north and west of it in favourable periods. Nowadays, the increase of the species range in Europe is the largest documented population explosion on the continent. We argue that this expansion originates from only three core populations, the Peri-Strandja area and the Dalmatian coast in the Balkans and the east parts of Western Transcaucasia in the Caucasus. This population explosion is largely due to a unique combination of factors of an anthropogenic nature.