Occurrence Of Water-borne Diseases Research Articles

GROUND WATER QUALITY AND ITS IMPACT ON HUMAN HEALTH IN DUNGARPUR DISTRICT OF RAJASTHAN, INDIA

Abstract. Dungarpur, one of the most backward districts of India, is a predominantly tribal region of Rajasthan state. Ground water is the major source of drinking water in the region. High concentrations of Fluoride (F) and Iron (Fe) have been reported in the region which poses high risk of rampant water-borne diseases. This study evaluates the ground water quality for drinking purpose in terms of 10 hydro-geochemical and two biological parameters in context of causative factors like land use and geology of the region. The occurrence of water borne diseases in resident population has been examined in association with quality of drinking water and priority areas for policy intervention have been identified. Water samples have been collected from 173 drinking water sources and 346 households consuming water from the selected sources have been surveyed for prevalence of water borne diseases. Water quality surfaces have been mapped in terms of F, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Hardness, Fe, alkalinity, Faecal Coliform (FC), E. Coli, and Water Quality Index (WQI) computed on the basis of 10 geochemical parameters, using Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) method. Results reveal that the north-eastern part comprising Aspur, Sabla and part of Sagwara tehsils predominantly has ‘very poor’ to ‘unsuitable’ water quality. The western part has excessive faecal contamination. Entire district has high levels of TDS and hardness, while excessive Fe and F occur in specific regions. Disease incidence closely corresponds to the geochemical and microbial composition of water. Higher values of WQI correspond with occurrence of Phyllites and Mica Schists.

Assessment of Awareness on Health Impact of Drinking Unsafe Water in Hargeisa, Somaliland

a cross-sectional study was conducted at Hargeisa from June to November 2019 to assess awareness and health impacts for drinking unsafe water in Hargeisa. A total of 384 respondents were participated. Out of 384 respondents participated in this study, 69% (265/384) of the respondents are aware of the health impacts for drinking unsafe water, whereas the rest 31% (119/384) are not aware health impacts for drinking unsafe water in the study area. Source of water in this study are tap water (31.8%), water tank vehicle (52.1%) and both tap water and water tank vehicle (16.1%). Education and economic status of the respondents were shown to significant association with the awareness of impacts on drinking unsafe water (P < 0.05), where location, gender and age were not shown statistical significant association (P > 0.05). Drinking unsafe water leads occurrence of water borne diseases, diarrhea and kidneys complications.

Analysis of sanitation and waterborne disease occurrence in Ondo State, Nigeria

Waterborne diseases (i.e., diarrhea, dracunculiasis, dysentery, typhoid fever, malaria, scabies, ringworm, cholera, hepatitis B, streptococci, and onchocerciasis) are linked to a significant disease burden worldwide. This work has thus established a relationship between access to improved sanitation, potable water supply, and waterborne disease occurrence in Ondo State, Nigeria, by analyzing the data sourced from the Federal Ministry of Water Resources, Federal Republic of Nigeria. The results showed that there was water scarcity (< 42% access) in the southern part of Ondo State. There was inadequate access to improved sanitation (< 30% access) in both the southern and northern parts of the State. Meanwhile, Southern Ondo State had the highest (> 320%) prevalence of waterborne diseases. There also existed a negatively moderate correlation: a substantial relationship between the access to a potable water supply (APW) (%) and the occurrence of waterborne diseases (WBD) (%) in Ondo State and between the occurrence of WBD (%) and improved sanitation (IS) (%) in the State. There existed a low correlation: definite but small relationship between the percentage of people with APW and the percentage of people with IS (%). This study has used the multiple linear regression model to develop a relationship equation using WBD as a dependent variable and APW and IS as independent variables. The first twelve elements (or LGAs) of Ondo State were used for modeling, while the last six were used to validate the results obtained. Equations generated were validated through residuals by observing the conditions of homoscedasticity, normality, and autocorrelation. The Nash–Sutcliffe efficiency was estimated to be about 80%. The spatial variability analysis was also done using inverse distance weighting. Therefore, it can be said that the modeled equation was quite good in predicting past and future waterborne diseases in Ondo State.

Multi-stage resilience analysis of the nexus flood-sanitation-public health in urban environments: a theoretical framework

ABSTRACT Water supply and wastewater systems are essential infrastructure affected by floods. Additional risk is posed in developing countries, where access to sanitation is not universal. Few studies assess the flood risk to the sanitation-health nexus. Therefore, this study aims to present a theoretical and general framework for assessing the resilience of flood-sanitation-public health nexus in urban environments, composed by risk estimation and risk management assessment. The framework was developed from a system analysis approach focusing on central supply systems. Regarding risk assessment, the main vulnerability and exposure factors identified were land use, social vulnerability, coverage of sanitation systems, occurrence of waterborne diseases, number of people affected by floods and intersection with the flood map. From the risk management assessment stage three main typologies of trade-offs and synergies were identified: urban territorial planning versus runoff control, water quality versus sanitation infrastructure and flood management policy versus social behavior.

Impacto da qualidade da água na saúde humana: um estudo de caso no Bairro Calomanda

Water quality is a fundamental aspect of human health and has been the subject of discussion in various fields in different dimensions, with the context of developing countries, especially Southern African region being the most concerning. The situation in Angola, and in particular in the province of Huambo, is not different from the other countries of the region, and there are studies that analyze the quality of water and describe the willingness of the residents to pay for this service. However, there is little evidence on water quality from the consumer perspective, as well as the relationship between academic level, water treatment and the occurrence of symptoms of water diseases. It is based on this reality that the present study hypothesizes that the focus of higher incidence of these diseases occurs in areas where the water is of lower quality from the organoleptic point of view from the residents' perspective. Likewise, it is also assumed that the academic level of the residents is one of the factors that influence both the treatment as well as the occurrence of water-borne diseases. In order to describe the influence of the academic level on the occurrence of water-borne diseases in the Calomanda neighbourhood, the non-parametric method was used using the Spearmen test and the results show a correlation between the academic level, water treatment and the occurrence of water-borne diseases.

Analysis of Effects of Physical, Chemical and Biological Properties in Domestic Waste Water (Slugde) on Environmental Health in Abia State, Nigeria

The study analyze the physical, chemical and Biological properties of sludge (Domestic waste water) in Umuda-Isingwu, Umuahia-Ibeku and Ihie-ndume in Umuahia north local government area of Abia state. Simple random sampling technique was adopted for the study. Data obtained from laboratory analysis of the water samples was analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistical techniques notably mean, F-LSD and F -test. The mean values of the physical and chemical parameters were compared with SON’s and WHO’s permissible limits. In the chemical properties COD had a mean range of 69.03 ± 0.06 to 80.03 ± 0.06 with all the means showing significant difference among each other (P ? 0.05). The highest TSS was observed in Ibeku at 921.03 ± 0.06. Nickel had a range of 7.42 ± 0.01 to 8.71 ± 0.01 Mg/l with all the means showing significant difference (P ? 0.05). PO4 had its highest concentration in Ihie Ndume community with a mean of 54.03 ± 0.06 Mg/l. None of the means of pH was seen to be above the WHO permissible limit of 8.5, as the mean range of pH was between 6.11 ± 0.01 to 7.76 ± 0.01. The E. coli load was high at Umuda Isingwu, followed by Ibeku and then Ihie Ndume. P. aeruginos and S. aereus was not observed in Ihie Ndume. The presence of fecal coliform bacteria is an indicator that a potential health hazard exists for individuals exposed to the source of water. Nickel was found to be slightly elevated at most of the sites above WHO. Trace metals have been implicated to be responsible for certain health disorders. The PO43- levels varied along the sampling community sites with some sites values having relatively higher values. In general the quality of these waste water cannot be guaranteed as most of the indicators were higher than the WHO and SON standards. This paper assumes that waste water evaluated pose huge treat to the immediate environment and should be investigated further in addition to epidemiological evaluation of the community to rule out occurrence of water-borne diseases.

Microbiological Quality of Drinking Water and Prevalence of Waterborne Diseases in the Gaza Strip, Palestine: A Narrative Review

Water quality and occurrence of water-borne diseases in the Gaza strip are vivid examples for most developing societies. In recent years, the quality and quantity of groundwater, the only source of waters in the Gaza strip, have deteriorated markedly. A general rundown of the infrastructure and water distribution networks, in particular, the spread of cesspools, excessive use of pesticides and fertilizers, and improper treatment and disposal of wastewater remain major contributing factors to the continued deterioration in the water status in the Gaza strip. Without a doubt, the (Israeli)-Palestinian conflict had a clear negative impact on the water sector in the Gaza strip. Apparently, there is a dire need to adopt the WHO’s water safety plan in the management of Gaza’s water supply systems from catchment to consumer’s tap in order to maintain the sustainability and quality of water resources and prevent outbreaks of waterborne diseases. Therefore, this review has been prepared to highlight the overall picture of the water dilemma in the Gaza strip in the last years and in addition, to identify the sources, sorts, levels, and health risks of consequence to microbial contamination of water. The impact of political conflicts on the water sector in the Gaza strip also was reviewed. Furthermore, recommendations were formulated in order to assist and guide future researchers, stakeholders, and policymakers to avoid the more exacerbation of water contamination as well as to protect public health.

Drinking water quality and occurrence of waterborne diseases in Imo state, Nigeria

Drinking water quality and occurrence of waterborne diseases in Imo state, Nigeria

Assessment and public perception of drinking water quality and safety in district Vehari, Punjab, Pakistan

Abstract Most of the developing countries including Pakistan have poor sanitary conditions which cause numerous diseases in human. Therefore, the present work aimed at evaluating the physicochemical and microbial contamination of drinking water in urban areas of three tehsils (Vehari, Mailsi and Burewala) of district Vehari based on occurrence of water-borne diseases. Forty-one water samples (six from tehsil municipal administration (TMA) water supply and 35 from electric pump) were collected from various locations of district Vehari for physicochemical and microbial analysis. In all the sampling sites pH (7.2–7.7), Phosphate (PO4−3) (0.00–0.94 mg/L), Sulphate (SO4−2) (0.00–172.8 mg/L), Magnesium (Mg+2) (4.55–40.7 mg/L), Iron (Fe+2) (0.00–0.09 mg/L), Copper (Cu+2) (0.00–0.04 mg/L), Zinc (Zn+2) (0.00–0.15 mg/L) and Manganese (Mn+2) (0.00–0.01 mg/L) were found under WHO limits. Microbial contamination of Eschrichia coli and coliform were found in water samples of F-Block, D-Block and C-Block of tehsil Vehari. Results revealed that the values of certain parameters such as electrical conductivity (0.34–2.23 mS/cm), total dissolved solids (123–1430.4 mg/L), Sodium (Na+) (55.5–327.5 mg/L), Calcium (Ca+2) (7.1–115 mg/L), Potassium (K+) (3.9–17.75 mg/L), Chloride (Cl−) (0.00–479.25 mg/L), and Nitrate (NO3−) (0.59–12.14 mg/L) exceed WHO limits in Sharqi Colony, Lalazar, Health Colony, TMA Sharqi Colony, Y-Block, 9-11 WB, College Town and 13-WB areas of district Vehari. Moreover, the survey of the sampled area was also conducted to assess public perception regarding water quality, its treatment, sanitation practices and possible reasons for the occurrence of water borne diseases. The survey results showed that 48.6% of the respondents disagreed that drinking water of their area is good. Cross tab analysis exhibited that respondents from different gender (65.3%), marital status (65.3%) and family type (65.3%) did not treat drinking water before use. Peoples who were not satisfied with their drinking water quality reported more disease development (45.8%) compared to those who were satisfied (11.1%) with their drinking water quality.

Assessment of well water pollution by sewage contaminants: A case study of Akure South, Ondo State, Nigeria

This study investigated the extent of well water contamination in dry and rainy seasons through infiltration of coliform bacteria from sewage pits in their proximity in Akure. Total and Faecal coliform counts of twenty household wells were investigated between the months of March and July with respect to proximity of wells to sewage pits, orientation of wells to sewage pits, and other well characteristics. All wells studied were assessed to be vulnerable to contamination with observable differences in characteristics, physicochemical parameters, total coliform counts and faecal coliform counts. Asides pH which was higher in the dry season, all other parameters had lower values in the dry season. At an average distance of 17.6 m from the sewage pits, all well water sampled had greater coliform counts than the WHO recommended level for drinking water (&lt; 1 cfu/mL). Correlations between coliform counts of water samples and the distances of the wells to sewage pits was positive and not significant for both total and faecal coliform in dry season, while it was negative and significant for both total and faecal coliform in the rainy season. Topography, and distance between wells and sewage pits were prominent factors responsible for well water contamination. Amounts of coliforms found in wells were significantly affected by seasonal variation. It is thus suggested that wells be sited up-gradient and at safer distances away from sanitary systems in the ultimate bid to reduce groundwater pollution and the occurrence of water borne diseases.

Drinking Water Quality among Marginalized Barangays of Malaybalay City

The study investigated the quality of drinking water in the marginalized communities of Malaybalay City. It determined the microbiological quality of drinking water; compared microbiological quality of water within and between water sources; and correlated the microbiological counts with the occurrence of waterborne diseases. Results showed that majority of these barangays show a high count for all microbiological properties in all water sources. A General Linear Model was used to find out if difference existed on the number of microbes during the trial periods. It showed no significant evidence for source effect. Also, the number of microbes in each source did not change over time for fecal coliform, E.coli and total coliforms. Tukey Simultaneous Test revealed a difference on the number of microbes between sources. Fitted Line Plot Cubic Model showed a greater coefficient of correlation R2 suggesting a slight positive association between the occurrence of microbes from water in the main source and diarrhea, and a moderately positive association between the microbiological counts from the water in the faucet and occurrence of diarrhea.Keywords: microbial counts, water quality, marginalized barangays, water resources

Implementing the Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) Project in Cross River State Using the Participatory Development Planning Approach

Implementing the Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) Project in Cross River State Using the Participatory Development Planning Approach It has been observed that most development projects implemented in most rural communities from either donor agencies or government are hardly sustained or maintained to serve the rural communities. This is so because the planning of these projects, its design and implementation strategies are usually made from outside the rural communities by external agencies and only transported to such rural communities for implementation, these projects seldom have community ownership, and hence they decay out of negligence and poor maintenance. Most rural community’s development has been hindered by the persistence health challenges orchestrated by the level of community’s ignorance of their water, sanitation and hygiene habit and attitude. This has severally led to the occurrence of water borne diseases, sanitation and other hygiene related ailment. In recent times this has been responsible for most child killer diseases, so concerted effort needed to be carried out to address the problem of water, sanitation and hygiene.

Tourism Induced Challenges in Municipal Solid Waste Management in Hill Towns: Case of Pahalgam

Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSWM) is one of the crucial urban basic services which influence the public health and environment of a town. While hill towns in India are already facing tremendous pressure due to lack of infrastructure, unfavourable climatic condition, difficult terrain, and public apathy towards waste management, Tourism induced challenges further aggravate the issue. Although in case of hill towns, tourism has a profound impact on the economy of the town, it comes with new challenges in terms of waste generation resulting into negative impacts on the sensitive hill environment. It is in this context, an effort has been made in this paper to examine the current issues and challenges in MSWM practice in Pahalgam, a small hill town located in the state of J&K, commonly known as “Mini Switzerland”, with special reference to impact of tourism on overall MSWM of the town. The methodology adopted includes review of case of SWM in other hill towns in India, and the legal and policy aspects at the national level. Primary survey of households and hotels was conducted by using stratified random sampling technique. Data was collected through structured questionnaire containing key information related to the issues and challenges in MSWM with special focus on tourism. Interview of city officials was conducted to capture institutional perspective.The study revealed that, in Pahalgam, tourism sector is the major generator of solid waste, Religious-touristic activities during the peak season. The study also finds crucial issues related to lack of capacity of the local body and the issues related to lack availability of plain land, improper location of waste collection infrastructure due to undulated terrain and inadequate collection capacity. The study also finds very strong correlation between unscientific disposal of MSW and degrading surface water quality and increasing occurrence of water borne diseases in the downstream during the peak tourist season.

Impact of Flooding on Fishermen’s families in Pedro Community, Iwaya-Lagos, Nigeria

Climatic change impact is envisaged to lead to increase in the frequency of occurrence of floods. This study examined the effect of flooding on fishermen’s families in Pedro village, Iwaya, Lagos. A total of 50 fishermen living in Pedro Community, Iwaya-Lagos, Nigeria were interviewed using structured questionnaires that were distributed through a simple random sampling technique. Data collected were summarized and computed using descriptive statistics. Results showed that flooding was a dominant seasonal climatic factor. Seventy-six percent of the respondents stated that flooding distorted the fishing business, destroyed fishing implements and impacted negatively on their social life. Flooding also interrupted children’s schooling, increased environmental pollution, reduced fish catch and consequently family income and also increased the occurrence of water borne diseases. Most (96%) of the respondents would not like their children to continue with fishing and will opt out if they get alternative means of livelihood. The tudy recommended that efforts to remedy the adverse effects of flooding should include provision of alternative skill development and affordable health services for treatment of water born diseases. © JASEM

The Knowledge of Hygiene and Sanitation Practices in the Collection, Treatment and Preservation of Potable Water in Santa, North West Cameroon

The health burden of poor water quality is enormous. It is estimated that around 37.7 million individuals are affected by water-borne diseases; annually 1.5 million children are estimated to die from diarrheal-related diseases each year. The developing countries in the world still face the problem of water scarcity with Africa having the largest number of countries with problems. Due to water scarcity, many families tend to store water in their home for long term use. Most families have inadequate knowledge or are ignorant on the duration of the storage and the type of container or vessel used in the collection and storage of drinkable water. The general objective of the study was to assess the knowledge and practices of the inhabitants of Santa Health District in the collection and preservation of potable water in order to avert the occurrence of water-borne diseases. The specific objectives of the study were: • To assess the knowledge of the inhabitants of Santa Health District on the collection, treatment and preservation of potable water. • To determine the practical measures employed in the collection, treatment and preservation of potable water. • To identify the problems faced in the collection, treatment and preservation of potable water. • To ascertain the information they need from health personnel to complement the practice of the collection and preservation of potable water. A descriptive cross sectional study design was employed for the study where-in primary data was collected at one point in time from inhabitants of the Santa Health District in order to collect their responses on the protection and preservation of portable water. The instrument employed for primary data collection was a structured questionnair with open and close-ended questions, administered by the researcher and co-researchers to the study population in the randomly selected quarters using cluster sampling. A sample size of 110 households was recruited for the study. Results show that concerning respondents’ knowledge of drinking water, 68 (58.18%) defined drinkable water as water safe enough to be consumed with low risk of harm, 24 (21.8%) defined it as water which originates from pipe borne water while 16 (14.5%) said that it is water from any natural source. On criteria used in the identification of unsafe water, 68 (58.18%) said they identified water which is not safe for drinking from its color, taste and odor, 32 (29.1%) said only the color of water while 6 (4%) said from its taste and odor and 3 (2.7%) said from the odor of water. On their sources of potable water when there is shortage of water supply, 58 (52.72%) said they got water from springs, 22 (20%) got their water from wells while 8 (16%) got theirs from streams and 6 (5.4%) said they got water from different taps around the municipality. On the issue of water protection and preservation from contaminants, 58 (52.7%) of the responses were that they lacked containers for their drinking water, 32 (29.5%) said they lacked chemicals and filters to treat their water, while 14 (12.9%) did not have knowledge in the protection and preservation of potable water while 06 (5.5%) said that the problem they encountered was the presence of children playing around drinkable water sources and water storage containers. From this study, it was found out that: respondents were not well educated on the protection and preservation of potable water; 72% of respondents did not treat water collected from streams or springs which is the main reason for the essence of public health education for the prevention against water borne diseases; 64.2% of the respondents stored their potable water as long as possible well above the stipulated duration for the preservation of drinking water. From the data collected, and analysis made it be can be concluded that there exist inadequate knowledge on the protection and preservation of potable water. Their understanding of the notions of hygiene and sanitation, the knowledge and practices on the collection and preservation of potable water are not based on the level of education but on how much public health information they got about drinking water collection, treatment and preservation. So, an up-to-date, knowledge and practices on the collection, treatment and preservation of potable water is necessary for the wellbeing of the Santa community. The Council’s hygiene and sanitation service should take it as duty function to organize regular public health education lectures in social institutions in order to enlighten the community.

Association of water-borne diseases morbidity pattern and water quality in parts of Ibadan City, Nigeria

Occurrence of diarrhoea and other water-borne diseases in cities of developing countries has been on the increase over the decades largely due to unsafe water, inadequate sanitation and poor hygiene among human population. This study examined the relationship between the spatial pattern of water-borne diseases vis-a-vis water quality in parts of Ibadan City in Nigeria. Data on 1334 cases of various water-borne diseases was collected from eight public hospitals with catchments covering the study area. Three areas with relatively high incidence of water-borne diseases and another three areas with relatively low incidence were selected for water sampling and household survey. Water samples from rains, wells, and borehole were collected for physical and bacteriological analyses. A well structured questionnaire was administered to 350 residents of the selected areas to elicit information on water sourcing, handling and storage. Analysis of hospital records showed significant difference in the occurrence of water-borne diseases among residential areas (P < 0.05). Typhoid fever had the highest occurrence (39.3%) followed by bacillary dysentery and cholera. About 45% of water-borne diseases were reported in July to September. The majority (77.1%) of the respondents depended on wells as major source of domestic water. Faecal coliform contamination of water samples ranged between 0.1 x 10(4) and 1.8 x 10(4) CFU ml(-1). Furthermore, 18% of rain water and 23.6% of well water samples were positive to Vibrio cholerae, Salmonella typhi and Shigella dysenteriae. Potash alum application for domestic water treatment accounted for 68.6% explanation of waterborne diseases morbidity pattern in the study area (P < 0.05). Provision of adequate potable water remains the most important tool for preventing water-borne diseases in the study area.

Water quality and occurrence of water-borne diseases in the Douala 4th District, Cameroon

The monthly occurrence and mean age distribution of water-borne diseases in the Douala 4th District, Cameroon (1995-2006) were studied and probable causes of diseases spread were established. Diseases of interest included gastroenteritis, amoebic dysentery, typhoid fever and cholera. Water-borne disease occurrence was observed to follow a seasonal pattern with peaks occurring between the months of January and May followed by drops between June and October and rose again from November. Children below 5 years were found to be more vulnerable to diarrhoea, gastroenteritis, amoebic dysentery while persons between 15-44 years were more vulnerable to typhoid and cholera. Physico-chemically, water samples had turbidities varying between 5.5-86 NTU, pH values between 4.2 and 7.1 and zero residual chlorine. Bacteriological analysis showed that the total coliform count was averagely 74/100 ml, the faecal colform count was 43/100 ml and the faecal streptococci count was 27/100 ml. Lack of access to potable water, absence of sanitation facilities and environmental factors could be advanced as the probable causes of water-borne disease spread.

Assessment of the microbial quality of river water sources in rural Venda communities in South Africa

The microbial quality of several, untreated surface water sources, used by rural communities in the Venda region of South Africa, was assessed to determine its safety for human consumption and to highlight the possible occurrence of water-borne diseases. The water sources studied were six sampling points on the Levubu River, Vuwani, Mutale, Ngwedi, Tshinane, Makonde, Mutshindudi and Mudaswali Rivers. Heterotrophic plate counts, faecal and total coliforms, enterococci and somatic coliphage counts were performed according to standard methods to determine the microbiological quality of the water sources. The presence of enteric pathogens such as Salmonella, Shigella, Campylobacter, Plesiomonas, Aeromonas and Vibrio was also determined. Results obtained showed that the minimum and maximum counts with regard to all the sampling points investigated were 1.5 x 103 cfu·ml-1 and 6.3 x 104 cfu·ml-1 for faecal coliforms, 6.0 x 102 cfu·ml-1 and 3.7 x 104 cfu·ml-1 for total coliforms, 1.8 x 102cfu·ml-1 and 1.3 x 106 cfu·ml-1 for heterotrophic plate counts, 1.0 x 101 cfu·ml-1 and 2.5. x 104 cfu·ml-1 for enterococci and 0 and 13 pfu·100 ml-1 for somatic coliphages. The results for the indicators were higher than the acceptable maximum limits prescribed by the Department of Water and Forestry of South Africa. According to these guidelines, the maximum values are as follows: 0 cfu·100 ml-1 for faecal coliforms, 5 cfu·100 ml-1 for total coliforms, 1.0 x 102 cfu·ml-1 for heterotrophic plate count, 0 cfu·ml-1 for enterococci and 1 pfu·100 ml-1 for somatic coliphages. Salmonella, Shigella, Vibro, Campylobacter, Aeromonas and Plesiomonasspecies were isolated from several of the water sources investigated. These untreated water sources are used for drinking and domestic purposes and pose a serious threat to the health of the consumers and therefore calls for urgent intervention by government. WaterSA Vol.28(3) 2002: 287-292