Lynx Occurrence Research Articles

Is the Iberian lynx a hunters’ ally? a case study from a reintroduced population in Portugal

The Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) is one of the most endangered felids in the world, and a high proportion of its populations occur in hunting grounds managed for red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa) and wild rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), both game species of high socio-economic value and the latter a key prey species for the lynx. In this case study from south-eastern Portugal, we evaluated the game management practices, the abundance of partridges and rabbits (expressed as Kilometric Abundance Index), and the occurrence of mesocarnivores in four hunting grounds, two with and two without breeding lynx. In all grounds game management was conducted but in those where lynx occurred, full-time gamekeepers were employed and hunting was the major source of income. The results showed that grounds with breeding lynx had higher KAI values for partridges and rabbits, together with reduced mesocarnivores occurrence (particularly red fox Vulpes vulpes and stone marten Martes foina), compared to those without breeding lynx. Our results confirm that lynx occurrence fits within the management traits of those hunting grounds in Iberia aiming to increase partridges and rabbits for sustainable hunting, as they act as ‘natural’ gamekeepers. This could be considered as a ‘win-win’ situation; successful for lynx’s establishment and small game conservation.

Effects of vegetation and topography on snowshoe hare relative abundance at the southern range periphery

AbstractThe conservation of snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus) and their habitat is a major focus in the American West, largely because of their importance to the federally threatened Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis). Understanding the habitat relationships of snowshoe hare populations at the southern periphery of their distribution is particularly important because a warming climate is reducing the mesic forests and persistent snow cover they require. Using fecal pellet density as an index, we examined the factors influencing snowshoe hare relative abundance at 2 study areas in the Southern Rocky Mountains by comparing suites of candidate models containing fine‐scale vegetation and topographical covariates. The Birdseye Gulch study area is within an extensive area containing high elevations, mesic forests, and Canada lynx occurrence. The Three Peaks study area consists of an isolated zone of high elevation and mesic forests surrounded by inadequate habitat and is absent of Canada lynx. Mean hare pellet density in Birdseye Gulch was 2.48 pellets ± 0.46 (SE)/ (n = 49) versus 2.24 ± 0.48/m2 (n = 57) at Three Peaks. Models containing fine‐scale vegetation variables best explained pellet densities at Birdseye Gulch. Pellet densities at Three Peaks were best explained by topographical variables, with much unexplained variation within all models. The differing trends in these areas may be due to the absence of resident Canada lynx at Three Peaks and differences in topography between the areas. Our results indicate that snowshoe hare populations can persist in the type of isolated habitat that is increasingly common at the southern range periphery; however, the use of vegetation management to conserve habitat in these areas may be less effective because of weaker associations with vegetation structure.

Effect of microhabitat characteristics for predicting habitat suitability for a stalking large carnivore—the Eurasian lynx in middle Europe

AbstractLarge European carnivores are generally considered forest animals. However, there are a number of interacting factors that may have different impact on the availability and suitability of habitat for individual species. Felids, because of their stalking hunting mode, are habitat specialists requiring a heterogeneous environment, making them specifically vulnerable to habitat disturbance. The Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), despite protection in many European countries, has a surprisingly limited range. To explain environmental factors that affect its distribution, we undertook habitat selection and habitat suitability analyses at the macrohabitat and microhabitat scales, based on lynx occurrence and environmental data in Poland. Since the species occurs in two populations, one of which inhabits lowland and the other mountainous area, we modelled habitat suitability separately in both areas and then extrapolated it for the whole country scale. The lynx selected forests with medium undergrowth density in the lowlands and highly rugged terrain in the mountain areas—a proxy of stalking cover. Habitat suitability modelling performed at the macrohabitat scale identified around 110 000 km2 of habitat available from which 55 700 km2 was classified as high quality including large tracts of forests in western Poland that are beyond the natural range of the lynx. However, the microhabitat model built by including stalking cover variables, decreased high‐quality habitats to only 33% of the area designated at the macrohabitat scale. This model is largely consistent with the current distribution of lynx in Poland. This suggests that the simplified internal structure of forests (lacking understory cover) may act as a hindrance to increasing the distribution of lynx populations and helps to explain its limited range in the Central European lowlands. This research suggests that the microhabitat structure may play the crucial role in the effective conservation of the Eurasian lynx.

Landscape Features, Human Disturbance or Prey Availability? What Shapes the Distribution of Large Carnivores in Europe?

Knowledge concerning the relative importance of biotic and abiotic factors associated with the long-term settlement of large carnivores in human-dominated landscapes is important for effective species conservation. However, identifying the major drivers of large carnivore occurrences at a continental scale is challenging as several factors can act in concert to affect large carnivore distributions. Thus, we investigated the relationship between the permanent and sporadic occurrences of large carnivores (brown bear, Eurasian lynx, grey wolf and wolverine) and three groups of predictor variables (i.e., landscape attributes, human disturbance and prey availability) on the continental scale in Europe. Specifically, we used generalized linear models (GLMs) and variation partitioning to estimate the independent and cumulative effects of the three predictor groups on large carnivore occurrences. The explained variance for permanent vs. sporadic occurrence was highest for the wolverine (42.8% and 29.7%), followed by the brown bear (20.5% and 16.4%), Eurasian lynx (15.2% and 11.6%) and grey wolf (15.8% and 6.1%). Landscape attributes, such as forest cover, shrub-land cover, altitude and slope, were positively related to the occurrence of grey wolf, brown bear and Eurasian lynx, whereas human disturbance (human population density, distance to roads and to human settlements) was negatively related to wolverine occurrence. For all species, shared effects between landscape attributes and human disturbance accounted for a considerable portion of the explained variation in both permanent and sporadic occurrence, and landscape attributes were generally more important for explaining permanent than sporadic occurrence, except for the wolverine. Prey availability was marginally associated with the permanent occurrence of the grey wolf but we found no statistical effect of prey availability on the occurrence of the other large carnivores. In conclusion, the sporadic occurrence of large carnivores in Europe is more stochastic and less predictable than their permanent occurrence. Landscape attributes and their joint effects with human disturbance are the most important factors related to the recolonization dynamics of large carnivores, although wolverine distributions appear strongly limited by human disturbance itself. Domestic prey availability seems to play a subordinate role in driving the recent distribution dynamics of large carnivores at the continental scale. Thus, our results are relevant also in light of the ongoing recolonization of large carnivores which, in many rural areas, caused concerns among the locals, especially in relation to conflicts with human activities. For these reasons, we stress the need to continue and improve large carnivore monitoring across Europe.

Forecasting species distributions: Correlation does not equal causation

AbstractAimIdentifying the mechanisms influencing species' distributions is critical for accurate climate change forecasts. However, current approaches are limited by correlative models that cannot distinguish between direct and indirect effects.LocationNew Hampshire and Vermont, USA.MethodsUsing causal and correlational models and new theory on range limits, we compared current (2014–2019) and future (2080s) distributions of ecologically important mammalian carnivores and competitors along range limits in the northeastern US under two global climate models (GCMs) and a high‐emission scenario (RCP8.5) of projected snow and forest biomass change.ResultsOur hypothesis that causal models of climate‐mediated competition would result in different distribution predictions than correlational models, both in the current and future periods, was well‐supported by our results; however, these patterns were prominent only for species pairs that exhibited strong interactions. The causal model predicted the current distribution of Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis) more accurately, likely because it incorporated the influence of competitive interactions mediated by snow with the closely related bobcat (Lynx rufus). Both modeling frameworks predicted an overall decline in lynx occurrence in the central high‐elevation regions and increased occurrence in the northeastern region in the 2080s due to changes in land use that provided optimal habitat. However, these losses and gains were less substantial in the causal model due to the inclusion of an indirect buffering effect of snow on lynx.Main conclusionsOur comparative analysis indicates that a causal framework, steeped in ecological theory, can be used to generate spatially explicit predictions of species distributions. This approach can be used to disentangle correlated predictors that have previously hampered understanding of range limits and species' response to climate change.

Evidence on Sympatric Occurrence of Caracal caracal and Lynx lynx in Anatolia

This study aims to determine the distributions of Caracal Caracal caracal and Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx in the central part of southwestern Turkey. It was conducted using a camera trap survey in 9 km2 gird cells of 280 km2 study area between March 2014 and April 2015. During the 7776 camera trap day survey, we obtained 5964 wildlife records from 31 different camera trap stations. While eight camera trap stations are positive for caracal (n = 48) and four camera trap stations are positive for lynx (n = 22), five camera trap stations are positive both for caracal and lynx. These results indicate the first evidence on sympatric occurrence of caracal and Eurasian lynx in Anatolia. The area in which caracal and eurasian lynx were recorded together is located at the transition of two eco-regions. High habitat diversity of this area have allowed these two species to be present in the area with suitable habitat and abundant prey (European hare) availability. Maintaining high habitat diversity is very important for preserving the existence of these two felid species in that area.

Assessing the influence of ecological interaction patterns among habitat types on species distribution: studying the Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus Temminck 1827) in central Spain

Species distribution models (SDMs) usually describe the landscape through single landcover types as explicative and independent variables. However, species distribution responds to ecological processes that are represented in spatial patterns of landcovers, which are not usually considered in SDMs. From the hypothesis that Iberian lynx occurrence will depend on landscape functioning and that spatial organisation of landcovers is a reliable indicator of landscape functionality, we built a SDM based on landscape structure, to: (i) assess the relevance that spatial organisation of landcovers has for SDMs; (ii) describe the suitable landscape for the presence/conservation of the Iberian lynx. Spatial organisation of landscape is identified by recognising landscape mosaics, which are sets of patches with a similar pattern of boundaries. We identified landscape mosaics within western area of the province of Madrid. Then, we used field-collected lynx scats to test if species’ preferences are related to landscape mosaics. The species shows its preference for two out of eight identified mosaics. It shows preference for mosaics with low human-modified holm oak forests, but it does not show rejection of traditional land-uses such as pasture or non-intensive agriculture. The relevance of watercourses was also shown, since two of four mosaics with characteristic riparian vegetation prove to be relevant in the model. As landscape includes spatial interactions (boundaries) among landcovers it is a more holistic descriptor than single landcovers. This contributes to increase SDMs performance and usefulness for designing more accurate conservation actions, compared to those based on single landcover composition.

Large carnivore habitat suitability modelling for Romania and associated predictions for protected areas.

Habitat characteristics associated with species occurrences represent important baseline information for wildlife management and conservation, but have rarely been assessed for countries recently joining the EU. We used footprint tracking data and landscape characteristics in Romania to investigate the occurrence of brown bear (Ursus arctos), gray wolf (Canis lupus) and Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) and to compare model predictions between Natura 2000 and national-level protected areas (gap analysis). Wolves were more likely to occur where rugged terrain was present. Increasing proportion of forest was positively associated with occurrence of all large carnivores, but forest type (broadleaf, mixed, or conifer) generally varied with carnivore species. Areas where cultivated lands were extensive had little suitable habitat for lynx, whereas bear occurrence probability decreased with increasing proportion of built areas. Pastures were positively associated with wolf and lynx occurrence. Brown bears occurred primarily where national roads with high traffic volumes were at low density, while bears and lynx occurred at medium-high densities of communal roads that had lower traffic volumes. Based on predictions of carnivore distributions, natural areas protected in national parks were most suitable for carnivores, nature parks were less suitable, whereas EU-legislated Natura 2000 sites had the lowest probability of carnivore presence. Our spatially explicit carnivore habitat suitability predictions can be used by managers to amend borders of existing sites, delineate new protected areas, and establish corridors for ecological connectivity. To assist recovery and recolonization, management could also focus on habitat predicted to be suitable but where carnivores were not tracked.

Fear or food \u2013 abundance of red fox in relation to occurrence of lynx and wolf

Apex predators may affect mesopredators through intraguild predation and/or supply of carrion from their prey, causing a trade-off between avoidance and attractiveness. We used wildlife triangle snow-tracking data to investigate the abundance of red fox (Vulpes vulpes) in relation to lynx (Lynx lynx) and wolf (Canis lupus) occurrence as well as land composition and vole (Microtus spp.) density. Data from the Swedish wolf-monitoring system and VHF/GPS-collared wolves were used to study the effect of wolf pack size and time since wolf territory establishment on fox abundance. Bottom-up processes were more influential than top-down effects as the proportion of arable land was the key indicator of fox abundance at the landscape level. At this spatial scale, there was no effect of wolf abundance on fox abundance, whereas lynx abundance had a positive effect. In contrast, at the wolf territory level there was a negative effect of wolves on fox abundance when including detailed information of pack size and time since territory establishment, whereas there was no effect of lynx abundance. This study shows that different apex predator species may affect mesopredator abundance in different ways and that the results may be dependent on the spatiotemporal scale and resolution of the data.

A landscape of coexistence for a large predator in a human dominated landscape

Human related mortality is a major threat for large carnivores all over the world and there is increasing evidence that large predators respond to human related risks in a similar way as prey respond to predation risk. This insight recently led to the conceptual development of a landscape of coexistence that can be used to identify areas which can sustain large predator populations in human dominated landscapes. In this study we applied the landscape of coexistence concept to a large predator in Europe. We investigated to what extent Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx habitat selection is affected by human disturbance in a human dominated landscape. More specifically, we were interested in the existence of a tradeoff between the availability of roe deer, one of their main prey and avoidance of human disturbance and how this affects the spatio‐temporal space use patterns of lynx. We found that lynx face a tradeoff between high prey availability and avoidance of human disturbance and that they respond to this by using areas of high prey availability (but also high human disturbance) during the night when human activity is low. Furthermore our analysis showed that lynx increase their travelling speed and remain more in cover when they are close to areas of high human disturbance. Despite clear behavioral adjustments in response to human presence, prey availability still proved to be the most important predictor of lynx occurrence at small spatial scale, whereas human disturbance was considerably less important. The results of our study demonstrate how spatio‐temporal adaptations in habitat selection enable large carnivores to persist in human dominated landscapes and demonstrate the usefulness of the concept of a landscape of coexistence to develop adaptive management plans for endangered populations of large carnivores.

Habitat selection and their interspecific interactions for mammal assemblage in the Greater Khingan Mountains, northeastern China

Patterns of habitat use profoundly influence interactions among wildlife species and ecological communities, the sustainability of species and the stability of populations. The Eurasian lynxLynx lynx,sableMartes zibellina,mooseAlces alces,roe deerCapreolus pygargusand mountain hareLepus timidusare sympatric carnivore and herbivore species in Hanma Nature Reserve in the Greater Khingan Mountains, northeastern China. We conducted snow track sample plot surveys of these mammals during the winter of 2012–2013 and analyzed habitat selection characteristics and interspecific interactions. We screened the preferred habitat variables of each species and predicted their potential occurrence probability by generalized linear mixed model (GLMM) and further, selected the best model of each species that incorporated other species' potential occurrence probability in GLMM. Our results showed that when we only considered habitat factors in the model: 1) river valley was the most favored habitat factor in winter that lynx, moose and mountain hare showed strong selection on; 2) lynx preferred areas with steep slope and coniferous forest; 3) sable only avoided the forest edge; 4) roe deer avoided sparse shrub forest but preferred coniferous forest. When we incorporated other species' presence probability in GLMM: 1) the presence probability of moose and roe deer had no significant relationship with other species; 2) lynx preferred areas with higher mountain hare potential occurrence probability; 3) sable preferred areas with higher mountain hare but less lynx occurrence probability; 4) mountain hare preferred to inhabit areas with sympatric roe deer and lynx. These results will provide guidance for species specific habitat conservation and restoration, and wildlife population management based on interspecific interactions.

Incorporating natural and human factors in habitat modelling and spatial prioritisation for the <i>Lynx lynx martinoi</i>

Abstract. Countries in south-eastern Europe are cooperating to conserve a sub-endemic lynx species, Lynx lynx martinoi. Yet, the planning of species conservation should go hand-in-hand with the planning and management of (new) protected areas. Lynx lynx martinoi has a small, fragmented distribution with a small total population size and an endangered population. This study combines species distribution modelling with spatial prioritisation techniques to identify conservation areas for Lynx lynx martinoi. The aim was to determine locations of high probability of occurrence for the lynx, to potentially increase current protected areas by 20 % in Albania, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Montenegro, and Kosovo. The species distribution modelling used generalised linear models with lynx occurrence and pseudo-absence data. Two models were developed and fitted using the lynx data: one based on natural factors, and the second based on factors associated with human disturbance. The Zonation conservation planning software was then used to undertake spatial prioritisations of the landscape using the first model composed of natural factors as a biological feature, and (inverted) a second model composed of anthropological factors such as a cost layer. The first model included environmental factors as elevation, terrain ruggedness index, woodland and shrub land, and food factor as chamois prey (occurrences) and had a prediction accuracy of 82 %. Second model included anthropological factors as agricultural land and had a prediction accuracy of 65 %. Prioritised areas for extending protected areas for lynx conservation were found primarily in the Albania–Macedonia–Kosovo and Montenegro–Albania–Kosovo cross-border areas. We show how natural and human factors can be incorporated into spatially prioritising conservation areas on a landscape level. Our results show the importance of expanding the existing protected areas in cross-border areas of core lynx habitat. The priority of these cross-border areas highlight the importance international cooperation can play in designing and implementing a coherent and long-term conservation plan including a species conservation plan to securing the future of the lynx.

Habitat availability is not limiting the distribution of the Bohemian–Bavarian lynxLynx lynxpopulation

AbstractA population of Eurasian lynxLynx lynxwas established by reintroductions in the Bohemian Forest Ecosystem in the 1970s and 1980s. The most recent information on the population status indicates that the distribution has stagnated since the late 1990s, for unknown reasons. We assessed the availability of suitable habitat along the Austrian–German–Czech border, and hypothesized that the Bohemian–Bavarian lynx population is not in equilibrium with habitat suitability. Based on global positioning system data from 10 radio-collared lynx, we used a maximum entropy approach to model suitable habitat. Variables reflecting anthropogenic influence contributed most to the model and were negatively associated with the occurrence of lynx. We evaluated the model prediction using independent records of lynx from monitoring in Bavaria, Germany. Using our habitat approach we estimated the area of potential habitat, based on a mean annual home range of 445 km2for males and 122 km2for females. Our results indicated there were 12,415 km2of suitable habitat, distributed among 13 patches, for a potential population of c. 142 (93–160) resident lynx. We assessed connectivity via least-cost paths and found that all suitable patches could be reached by the lynx. A comparison with the current distribution of lynx, however, confirms that a significant proportion of suitable habitat is not occupied, which indicates that the distribution is limited by factors other than habitat, with illegal killing being the most likely cause. Our study provides crucial information for the development of a conservation strategy and regional planning for the Bohemian–Bavarian lynx population.

Habitat loss, not fragmentation, drives occurrence patterns of Canada lynx at the southern range periphery.

Peripheral populations often experience more extreme environmental conditions than those in the centre of a species' range. Such extreme conditions include habitat loss, defined as a reduction in the amount of suitable habitat, as well as habitat fragmentation, which involves the breaking apart of habitat independent of habitat loss. The ‘threshold hypothesis’ predicts that organisms will be more affected by habitat fragmentation when the amount of habitat on the landscape is scarce (i.e., less than 30%) than when habitat is abundant, implying that habitat fragmentation may compound habitat loss through changes in patch size and configuration. Alternatively, the ‘flexibility hypothesis’ predicts that individuals may respond to increased habitat disturbance by altering their selection patterns and thereby reducing sensitivity to habitat loss and fragmentation. While the range of Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis) has contracted during recent decades, the relative importance of habitat loss and habitat fragmentation on this phenomenon is poorly understood. We used a habitat suitability model for lynx to identify suitable land cover in Ontario, and contrasted occupancy patterns across landscapes differing in cover, to test the ‘threshold hypothesis’ and ‘flexibility hypothesis’. When suitable land cover was widely available, lynx avoided areas with less than 30% habitat and were unaffected by habitat fragmentation. However, on landscapes with minimal suitable land cover, lynx occurrence was not related to either habitat loss or habitat fragmentation, indicating support for the ‘flexibility hypothesis’. We conclude that lynx are broadly affected by habitat loss, and not specifically by habitat fragmentation, although occurrence patterns are flexible and dependent on landscape condition. We suggest that lynx may alter their habitat selection patterns depending on local conditions, thereby reducing their sensitivity to anthropogenically-driven habitat alteration.

Protected areas shape the spatial distribution of a European lynx population more than 20 years after reintroduction

The Bohemian Forest harbours one of the largest lynx populations in Central Europe, which arose from animals reintroduced in two adjacent national parks. Despite an increasing number of population modelling approaches, the differences between potential and realised lynx distributions urgently need to be explored. We used lynx monitoring data from 2005 to 2010 from 530 municipalities in eastern Bavaria and spatial estimates of roe deer densities to test the predictions that the probability of lynx occurrence (confirmed or unconfirmed) increases with (1) decreasing distance to the national park area, (2) increasing forest cover, (3) increasing proportion of state-owned forests, (4) increasing roe deer density and (5) decreasing human activity. Using a flexible additive boosting model, we identified the distance to the national parks as the dominant factor, with positive effects on lynx probability only up to 70 km from the centre of the two national parks. Moreover, forest cover and roe deer density were correlated with increasing lynx occurrence. The probability of unconfirmed lynx occurrence increased with the proportion of state-owned forest within a municipality. The most probable mechanism behind the distance variable is illegal killing outside of the national parks. We concluded that despite the small size of protected areas in Central Europe, they still provide important source areas for this large predator. Moreover, the results supported conclusions of previous modelling approaches on the exchange among existing subpopulations in Central Europe, and indicated that lynx currently might not be able to colonise the next suitable areas.

Living amidst a sea of agriculture: predicting the occurrence of Canada lynx within an ecological island

Carnivore populations are increasingly confined to reserves surrounded by anthropogenic development. The boundaries of ecological islands are risky because of habitat loss and human—carnivore conflict. From snow track survey data collected over a 5‐winter period we developed a population‐level resource selection function for Canada lynx Lynx canadensis in Riding Mountain National Park, Canada. This park has been characterized as an ‘ecological island situated amidst a sea of agricultural land’ and while lynx are protected within the park, they are subject to harvest outside of the park. Winter resource selection of lynx increased with higher elevation and in highly suitable habitat for snowshoe hare Lepus americanus and decreased in habitat with greater proportions of agriculture and grasslands, both of which are common along the edge of the park. Habitat with medium to high relative probabilities of lynx occurrence tended to be distributed in the interior of the park. However, the highest relative probability of lynx occurrence was associated with habitat near the southeast border of the park in close proximity to a human community and a lake where snowmobiling, skiing, and snowshoeing are common recreational pursuits. We attribute this relationship to a 25‐year old fire which presently created successional habitat highly suitable for snowshoe hare and correspondingly for lynx in this area. Our results suggest that Canada lynx occurrence tends to be associated with habitat that is highly suitable for their primary prey even if that habitat is located near to sources of human recreational activity.

Canada lynx occurrence and forest management in the Acadian Forest

AbstractWe evaluated patterns of occurrence and non‐occurrence for Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis) across a 16,530‐km2 study area in Maine to provide a better understanding of lynx habitat selection and habitat ecology on commercially managed forestlands in the Acadian Forest. Because of the influence of forest structure on lynx habitat selection and abundance of their primary prey, the snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus), and to improve our ability to build robust models, we used habitat information derived from a time series of Landsat satellite imagery spanning the period 1973–2004. We defined and mapped 10 forest types based on forest harvest history, time since harvest, and current forest condition. We compared a suite of models to evaluate relative influences of forest composition, habitat patch configuration, and hare density on habitat selection by lynx at the landscape scale. Occupied areas had greater average hare densities and percentage of mature conifer. Average hare density in occupied areas (0.74 hares/ha) was greater than in unoccupied areas (0.62 hares/ha), but was less than previous research has suggested may be necessary to support lynx populations in the southern portion of the species' range. No occupied areas occurred where average hare density was <0.5 hares/ha. Average hare density at the landscape‐scale was strongly influenced by amount of high‐quality hare habitat (i.e., conifer or mixedwood regenerating forest, 15–35 yr post‐harvest). Edge density between mature conifer and high‐quality hare habitat was substantially greater in occupied areas compared to unoccupied areas. Juxtaposition of those 2 forest types may provide edge habitat where lynx experience easier travel and improved access to prey in landscapes with extensive areas of high‐quality hare habitat where travel and access may be somewhat limited by high understory stem density. Probability of occurrence declined nonlinearly with changes in hare density and percent mature conifer forest in the landscape; thus, suitability of currently occupied landscapes could change markedly with future changes in landscape‐level hare densities and changing habitat associated with forest management. Where lynx conservation is a priority, we recommend that managers focus on creating and maintaining a minimum of 27% high‐quality hare habitat within 100‐km2 areas to promote landscape‐scale hare densities >0.5 hares/ha. © The Wildlife Society, 2013

Functional connectivity of lynx at their southern range periphery in Ontario, Canada

Peripheral populations are often small and isolated compared to those in the range core, in part due to the patchy distribution of suitable habitats at range margins. It follows that peripheral populations typically occur at lower densities and are more susceptible to extinction, but their persistence may be facilitated through connectivity with core areas. Relationships between connectivity and the distribution of animal populations have not yet been fully evaluated, especially for large carnivores having extensive spatial needs and specialized habitat requirements. Using observations of snow tracks, we modeled occurrence of Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis) in relation to landscape characteristics along their southern range periphery in Ontario, Canada; we sought to assess functional connectivity of lynx habitat along the southern margins of the range. As observed in other studies, young coniferous forests had the highest probability of lynx occurrence, likely due to their association with snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus). We used the occurrence model to parameterize a resistance surface and then circuit theory to predict functional connectivity along the southern periphery of lynx distribution. Lynx typically travelled through landscapes with higher connectivity than random paths, implying that lynx habitat requirements in their southern range likely extend beyond habitat composition, and that conservation efforts should seek to preserve metapopulation dynamics through functional connectivity of suitable habitat across larger spatial scales.

Favourable areas for expansion and reintroduction of Iberian lynx accounting for distribution trends and genetic variation of the wild rabbit

Although on a local scale Iberian lynx distribution is determined by the availability of prey rabbits, recent modelling analyses have uncovered broad-scale disagreements between these two species’ distribution trends. These analyses showed also that the lynx had become restricted to only a fraction of the rabbit’s genetic variability, and that this could be jeopardising its survival in the face of environmental hazards and uncertainty. In the present paper, a follow-up was carried out through the building of lynx and rabbit distribution models based on the most recent Spanish mammal atlas. The predictions of environmental favourability (which is an indicator of abundance) for lynx and rabbit were positively correlated within the lynx's current distribution area, but they were negatively correlated within the total Spanish area where lynx occurred in the 1980’s. Environmental favourability for rabbits was significantly higher where lynx maintains reproductive populations than where it recently disappeared, indicating that rabbit favourability plays an important role and can be a good predictor of lynx persistence. The lynx and rabbit models were extrapolated to predict favourable areas for both species in Spain as well as in Portugal, on the original scale of the distribution data (10x10 km) and on a 100 times finer spatial resolution (1x1 km). The lynx and rabbit models were also combined through fuzzy logic to forecast the potential for lynx occurrence incorporating information on favourable areas for its main prey. Several areas are proposed as favourable for lynx expansion or re-introduction, encompassing both countries and both genetic lineages of the rabbit.

Recovery of the Alpine lynxLynx lynxmetapopulation

AbstractWe use the case of the Eurasian lynxLynx lynxin the Alps to discuss how to implement existing directives and recommendations, as well as how to integrate biological concepts, into practical conservation and wildlife management. Since 1995 the occurrence of lynx in the Alpine countries has been monitored and reported by the Status and Conservation of the Alpine Lynx Population expert group. Both the area of occupancy and the estimated number of individuals increased from 1995–1999 to 2000–2004. The estimated number of lynx is 120–150 across the Alps and the area of occupancy 27,800 km2, in six distinct sub-areas. In the highly fragmented Alpine habitat lynx populations expand slowly, even in situations of high local density and when suitable habitat is available. Thus, almost 40 years after the first reintroduction, < 20% of the Alps have been recolonized by lynx. In addition to biological and ecological factors, the persistent disagreements about the return of the lynx between conservationists and other land-users, including livestock breeders and hunters, and the political fragmentation of the Alps (with different regional priorities and large carnivore policies), has prevented the creation of a consensus regarding pan-Alpine conservation goals for the lynx and the implementation of conservation measures such as translocations and reintroductions. We discuss possible approaches in the light of new guidelines for population level management plans for large carnivores recently developed on behalf of the European Commission.