Occurrence Of Foot-and-mouth Disease Research Articles

Seroprevalence, Serotyping, and Associated Risk Factors of Foot and Mouth Diseases in Bovine in Western Amhara Regional State, North Western Ethiopia

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is the most contagious disease of animals. The disease affects domestic cloven-hoofed animals, including cattle, swine, sheep, and goats, deer, and is characterized by fever, lameness, and vesicular lesions on the tongue, feet, snout, and teats. The study aimed to determine seroprevalence of FMD (Foot and Mouth Disease), to identifay type of serotypes and to know associated risk factors. A total of 389 sera samples were collected from cattle in four districts of the north western Amhara region and subjected to a 3ABC enzyme-linked immune-sorbent assay. The overall seroprevalence of FMDV was 5.66% (22/389); (95%; CI: 3.34% to 7.98%). The 22 positive samples were subjected to solid phase competitive ELISA to identify specific serotypes. The occurrence of FMD was higher in Adet (OR= 12.8), greater in the semi-intensive than extensive production systems (OR=10.4) and highly occurred in the cross breed than local breed cattle (OR=3.56). Serotypes identified in the four districts were type O, SAT2, and A. This study revealed that FMD is a prevalent and endemic disease. Thus, awareness creation to the stakeholders on the control and prevention of a disease is required. Further epidemiological investigation and vaccine trials should be conducted.

Serological detection of foot and mouth disease antibodies in apparenty healthy pigs within federal capital territory, Abuja

Swine production contributes significantly to the economic wealth of most farmers in developing nations including Nigeria. Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) has been a highly contagious viral disease of agricultural importance in domestic ruminants and pigs, hampering livestock productivity in countries where the disease is still endemic. The study aimed to determine the swine FMD occurrence in order to elucidate the disease burden within Federal Capital Territory, Abuja and its environs. One hundred (100) sera were collected from Pigs and subjected to 3ABC ELISA test at the FMD Laboratory in National Veterinary Research Institute (NVRI), Vom. The result showed that out of 100 sera samples tested for FMD antibodies, 26 (26%) were positive and 74 (74%) were negative. Sero-positive distribution showed sow/gilt (32.7%), younger pigs (57.7%) and local breeds (50%) were more exposed to FMD. Although, this was not significant (P>0.05). Questionnaire report further showed knowledge attitude and practice (KAP) of farmers was good, however, the absence of vaccination could be a contributing factor to FMD spread to other susceptible and between carrier livestock within the study area. This finding suggests an increasing occurrence of FMD in pigs within the Guinea Savanna Zone of North-Central Nigeria. In conclusion, FMD antibodies were detected in apparently healthy, unvaccinated pigs of all breeds, ages and sex slaughtered and reared in the FCT. Control efforts should be put in place to prevent possible transmission of Foot and Mouth Disease between pigs and cattle and other ruminants within and between herds, market and slaughter slabs.

Seroepidemiological investigation of Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) in Northern Amhara, Ethiopia

Ethiopia's livestock resource is one of the largest in the world. However, it has been downgraded due to animal mortalities associated with higher prevalence of infectious diseases. These constraints are worse in Lalibela, Sekota and Ziquala districts where this study was carried out. Despite the availability of scanty animal health services in these areas, information on animal health, especially cattle, was never a significant research focus. Many transboundary infectious diseases are prevalent in Ethiopia, and Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) is among the country's primary animal health challenges. Hence, to understand the epidemiology of FMD in these areas, a cross-sectional study was conducted in 2017 to estimate its seroprevalence of the disease and understand associated risk factors. Three hundred eighty-three randomly selected cattle from the three districts were included for the seroepidemiological analysis. The overall seroprevalence of FMD with a 3ABC ELISA test was estimated 3.4%, with no significant association with risk factors like study districts (agroecology), age, sex, and body condition score. The level of occurrence of FMD in the study areas may seem low. However, it needs attention from responsible bodies because of its transmission speed and economic impact. Besides, further studies involving serotyping with advanced diagnostic techniques are needed to understand the circulating serotypes in the study area.

Pedigree-based analyses of changes in genetic variability in three major swine breeds in Taiwan after a disease outbreak.

Pedigree analysis was performed in three major Taiwanese swine breeds to evaluate the genetic variability in the current population and determine the main reason for genetic diversity (GD) loss after the occurrence of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in Taiwan. The pedigree files of the Duroc, Landrace, and Yorkshire breeds, containing 60,237, 87,177, and 34,373 records, respectively, were analyzed. We divided the population into two subpopulations (pre-1998 and post-1998) to determine the role of FMD in GD loss. Pedigree completeness and related indicators were analyzed to evaluate the pedigree quality, and several parameters were used to measure the levels of GD and further used to determine the major cause of GD loss. The pedigree completeness indexes for the different breeds were higher than 0.60, and the trend was enhanced after the FMD outbreak. The estimated proportion of random genetic drift in GD loss increased in all breeds over time (from 62.64% to 78.44% in Duroc; from 26.26% to 57.99% in Landrace; and from 47.97% to 55.00% in Yorkshire, respectively). The effective population size of Duroc and Landrace were increased by the time (Duroc: from 61.73 to 84.75; Landrace: from 108.70 to 113.64); however, it shows opposite trend in Yorkshire population (decline from 86.21 to 50.00). In summary, the occurrence of FMD led to the major loss of GD loss by random genetic drift. Therefore, for the recovery of GD, breeders in Taiwan should increase the effective population size with newly imported genetic materials and adjust the breeding strategy to reduce the inbreeding rate.

A qualitative risk assessment indicates moderate risk of foot‐and‐mouth disease outbreak in cattle in the lower Okavango Delta because of interaction with buffaloes

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) was first documented in domestic stock in Botswana in the early 1930s and since then the country opted for eradication of FMD from all her livestock-rearing areas. A multipronged control strategy was adopted along the pathway towards eradication that initially included strategic apthisation of cloven-hooved domestic stock up to 1964, movement restriction through cordon fences and quarantine system from the 1950s, and vaccination using readily available commercial vaccines from the mid-1960s, to date. This has resulted in 78% of the country's land area being officially declared and recognized by the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) as FMD free without vaccination. However, the disease has remained endemic in the northern parts of the country, owing largely to co-existence of livestock and wildlife. We applied a qualitative risk analysis method in our study to assess the risk of FMD outbreak in zone 2 because of interaction between cattle and buffalo across a man-made physical barrier, southern buffalo fence, in the north of the country. The assessed risk was rated 'moderate' with moderate level of uncertainty, meaning assessment of mitigation options should be done before authorising import of cattle and cattle product from zone 2. Because of cost escalation associated with FMD controls, particularly zoning with cordon fences in the face of relentless trampling by elephants, we concluded that there is a need to revise the national goal of country-wide eradication of FMD in livestock rearing areas to a more achievable outcome for zone 2. We recommend adoption of husbandry management practices and marketing approaches that recognizes co-existence of cattle and wildlife in zone 2 as an exception to the rest of the country. Such an approach should be rooted not on geographic occurrence of FMD nor separation of the two species but on food product safety guarantees along the value chain, and we believe this to be critical for sustainability of FMD management and livelihoods in zone 2.

Investigation of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Outbreaks in Dairy Cattle from Kageshwari and Shankharapur Municipalities, of Kathmandu, Nepal and Associated Risk Factors from March to April 2020

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is endemic in Nepal and significantly impacts the livelihood of farmers, national economy, and trade of Nepal. However, outbreak investigations are not frequently conducted, and there have been limited studies to understand the associated risk factors. A case-control study was performed in dairy cattle farms of Shankharapur and Kageshwari Municipalities, Kathmandu from March to April 2020 to describe the outbreak and identify the risk factors associated with FMD. There were 31 case farms, while 62 farms were selected as control farms (1:2). The information from case and control farms was collected by semi-structured questionnaire survey through field visits and observations. The univariable and multivariable logistic regressions were performed. The farm-level prevalence of FMD was 25.2% (n=31/123). Among the FMD affected farms, the proportion of positive farms in Shankharapur (61.3% (19/31)) was significantly higher than Kageshwori (38.7% (12/31)). The final multivariable logistic regression analysis identified four variables: cattle purchased within 14 days (OR=12.9; CI=2.4-69.5), milk market distance less than two kilometers from the farm (OR=32.7; CI=5.8-186.3), sharing of the bull from other farms for natural insemination (OR=5.7; CI=1.2-26.8), and no vaccination against FMD in the past six months (OR=19.1; CI=2.0-186.2) as significant risk factors for the occurrence of FMD. This study suggests farmers vaccinate their dairy cattle with FMD vaccine as per the vaccination schedule suggested by the veterinarians, practice quarantine measures when new animals are introduced to their farms, practice biosecurity measures in their farms, and do not use bulls from areas where there are ongoing FMD outbreaks.

Risk factors for the incursion, spread and persistence of the foot and mouth disease virus in Eastern Rwanda

BackgroundIdentification of risk factors is crucial in Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) control especially in endemic countries. In Rwanda, almost all outbreaks of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus (FMDV) have started in Eastern Rwanda. Identifying the risk factors in this area will support government control efforts. This study was carried out to identify and map different risk factors for the incursion, spread and persistence of FMDV in Eastern Rwanda. Questionnaires were administered during farm visits to establish risk factors for FMD outbreaks. Descriptive statistical measures were determined and odds ratios were calculated to determine the effects of risk factors on the occurrence of FMD. Quantum Geographic Information System (QGIS) was used to produce thematic maps on the proportion of putative risk factors for FMD per village.ResultsBased on farmers’ perceptions, 85.31% (with p < 0.01) experienced more outbreaks during the major dry season, a finding consistent with other reports in other parts of the world. Univariate analysis revealed that mixed farming (OR = 1.501, p = 0.163, CI = 95%), and natural breeding method (OR = 1.626; p = 0.21, CI = 95%) were associated with the occurrence of FMD indicating that the two risk factors could be responsible for FMD outbreaks in the farms. The occurrence of FMD in the farms was found to be significantly associated with lack of vaccination of calves younger than 12 months in herds (OR = 0.707; p = 0.046, CI = 95%).ConclusionsThis is the first study to describe risk factors for persistence of FMDV in livestock systems in Rwanda. However, further studies are required to understand the role of transboundary animal movements and genotypic profiles of circulating FMDV in farming systems in Rwanda.

Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus: Immunobiology, Advances in Vaccines and Vaccination Strategies Addressing Vaccine Failures-An Indian Perspective.

A mass vaccination campaign in India seeks to control and eventually eradicate foot-and-mouth disease (FMD). Biosanitary measures along with FMD monitoring are being conducted along with vaccination. The implementation of the FMD control program has drastically reduced the incidence of FMD. However, cases are still reported, even in regions where vaccination is carried out regularly. Control of FMD outbreaks is difficult when the virus remains in circulation in the vaccinated population. Various FMD risk factors have been identified that are responsible for FMD in vaccinated areas. The factors are discussed along with strategies to address these challenges. The current chemically inactivated trivalent vaccine formulation containing strains of serotype O, A, and Asia 1 has limitations including thermolability and induction of only short-term immunity. Advantages and disadvantages of several new-generation alternate vaccine formulations are discussed. It is unfeasible to study every incidence of FMD in vaccinated animals/areas in such a big country as India with its huge livestock population. However, at the same time, it is absolutely necessary to identify the precise reason for vaccination failure. Failure to vaccinate is one reason for the occurrence of FMD in vaccinated areas. FMD epidemiology, emerging and re-emerging virus strains, and serological status over the past 10 years are discussed to understand the impact of vaccination and incidences of vaccination failure in India. Other factors that are important in vaccination failure that we discuss include disrupted herd immunity, health status of animals, FMD carrier status, and FMD prevalence in other species. Recommendations to boost the search of alternate vaccine formulation, strengthen the veterinary infrastructure, bolster the real-time monitoring of FMD, as well as a detailed investigation and documentation of every case of vaccination failure are provided with the goal of refining the control program.

Serological Detection of Foot and Mouth Disease Virus Non-Structural Protein Antibodies in Sheep Slaughtered at Gwagwalada Abattoir, Abuja-Nigeria

Small ruminants (Ovine and Caprine) constitutes a significant revenue generation component for small-scale livestock farmers across the globe especially in most developing nations including Nigeria. Viral diseases like Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a major contagious disease of domestic ruminants that hampers livestock productivity in countries where the disease is still endemic. However, the role of Sheep in FMD epidemiology in Nigeria is still underestimated and poorly understood. This study was aimed at establishing the occurrence of FMD in slaughtered Sheep at Gwagwalada abattoir. One hundred and eighty (180) sera were randomly collected from slaughtered sheep and subjected to NS-Blocking ELISA test using PrioCHECK® ELISA kit at the Foot and Mouth Disease Laboratory, National Veterinary Research Institute (NVRI), Vom. The result showed that out of 180 test sera, 29 (16.0%) were evident of NSP-FMD antibodies and 151 (84.0%) were negative. This findings indicates FMD infections were within and absence of vaccination against FMD in sheep. The consequence of co-herding of sheep as a risk factor in FMD spread and transmission within this study area could be far overwhelming. In conclusion, this preliminary finding provides information on the occurrence of FMD in all breeds of apparently healthy, non-vaccinated Rams and Ewes slaughtered in Gwagwalada abattoir. Control efforts should be put in place to prevent potential vicious circle of outbreaks that may arise from transmission of Foot and Mouth Disease Virus from slaughtered sheep in the abattoir to livestock markets and possibly herds within and around Gwagwalada Area Council.

Investigating the temporal and spatial distribution of foot-and-mouth disease virus serotype C in the Region of South America, 1968-2016.

This study investigates the historical temporal trend and geographical distribution of the foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDv) serotype C in South America; discussing the findings within the context of the actions and strategies carried out for the elimination of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD). This is the first time that such a comprehensive historical compilation has been carried out in the Region; hence, the study is intended as a reference and source of evidence about the presence/absence of FMDv serotype C in South America. Data on the occurrence of FMD were sourced from the Weekly Epidemiological Reports submitted by the countries to Pan AmericanFoot-and-Mouth DiseaseCenter(PANAFTOSA-PAHO/WHO) since 1972, and complemented with other sources of information from the 1968-1971 period. The temporal distribution was examined with local weighted regression (LOESS) to identify two temporal trends, that is, "smoothed" and "over-adjusted", utilising the time-series with the total number of cases per year, at Regional level. Thereafter the outbreaks were aggregated by decades and mapped by the first subnational administrative level. As a result, two major peaks of occurrence were identified, one in the 70s, with up to 1,193 outbreaks, and another in the 80s, with 380. Overall, the investigations show a clear regressive trend in the occurrence of serotype C, with a reduction in the number of outbreaks over-time, and with the subsequent reduction of affected locations. This study illustrates the contrast between the very limited presence over the last 20years - with only one event in 2004 - and the epidemic situation in the 1970s and 1980s, and suggests that serotype C of FMDv is no longer present in the Region.

Dynamics of widespread foot-and-mouth disease virus serotypes A, O and Asia-1 in southern Asia: A Bayesian phylogenetic perspective.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is, arguably, the animal disease with the most devastating global economic impact owing in part, to the severe trade restrictions imposed upon affected countries and regions. South Asia is one of the regions where widespread lineages of the FMDV virus (FMDV) have emerged. Here, we performed an integrative phylogenetic analysis of all FMDV serotypes (A, O and Asia-1) circulating in southern Asia, including viral sequences collected until 2013. Our results describe the occurrence of FMD caused by different serotypes and lineages, focusing in the cycles where a specific lineage predominates within a region for a protracted period and then are rapidly or progressively replaced by an emergent or re-emergent strain that is introduced from an adjacent region. Transmission between the two main regions in southern Asia (the Indian subcontinent and the region comprised by Afghanistan, Iran and Pakistan) has been limited. Results of time divergence estimation of lineages that currently circulate in this region indicate that the most recent common ancestor of endemic lineages are: 1992 [1989-1995] for lineage O/PanAsia; 1997 [1995-1999] for PanAsia2; 2001 [1998-2004] for O/Ind2001; 2001 [2000-2002] for A/Iran-05; 1990 [1988-1991] for A/G-18 (G-VII); 2003 [2000-2006] for Asia-1 Sindh08 and 2002 [1999-2004] for Asia-1G-VIII. We estimated the mean of the overall substitution rate of the VP1 coding region (substitution/site/year) for serotype O (5.95×10-3 ), serotype A (1.19×10-2 ) and serotype Asia-1 (3.08×10-3 ). The potential factors driving the lineage turnover are discussed. Our results provide insights into the ecological and evolutionary factors driving the emergence of FMDV.

Investigation of FMD Outbreak in District Bulandsahar, Uttar Pradesh, India

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is an acute, highly contagious viral disease of cloven footed animals. It is known to be endemic in India, with periodic outbreaks occurring in different geographical areas of the country. This study was conducted to investigate the presence of FMD virus (FMDV) in reported FMD-suspected cases and the secondary bacteria known to accompany FMD and to find the reason for high mortality rate. Blood samples were collected from affected animals of Shekhupur raura village of district Bulandsahar and examined for presence of antibodies against FMDV. The possible common sources of the outbreak might be the introduction of infected cattle and buffaloes from the cattle market and commingling of animals with those of infected neighbouring villages. As mass vaccination of animals (cattle and buffaloes) against Foot-and-mouth disease in Uttar Pradesh is going on, the occurrence of FMD in this area is a matter of great concern. This report appeals to the national and state authorities to impose strict regulations related to livestock movement and further improve monitoring and surveillance programme.

An appraisal on the occurrence of foot-and-mouth disease virus serotypes in cattle and buffaloes, Pakistan.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a livestock disease that has serious economic repercussions. Here, we report the laboratory results for samples from suspected outbreaks that were sent for confirmation of FMD in Pakistan. From January 2010 to December 2011, 132 suspected outbreaks were investigated, and samples from 58 out of the 76 outbreaks sent to the National Veterinary Laboratory (NVL) were positive. The highest proportion of positives were of serotype O (65.52 %), followed by serotype A (24.14 %) and serotype Asia-1 (10.35 %), whereas amongst the samples sent to the World Reference Laboratory, Pirbright, UK (WRL), samples from 48 out of 56 outbreaks were confirmed to be FMD positive, with the following serotypes identified: O (56.25 %), Asia-1 (37.50 %) and A (6.25 %). The outbreaks affected cattle, buffalo and mixed (cattle and buffalo) herds at rates of 91, 70 and 76 %, respectively. The trend of positive outbreaks was higher in the months of winter and late spring (November to April). Although the serotype O isolates and some of the serotype A isolates from the field samples resembled the vaccine strains (r-value ≥ 0.3), this was not the case for the Asia-1 isolates. These results help to improve our understanding of the occurrence and distribution of FMD in cattle and buffaloes in Pakistan and to provide baseline information for the FMD progressive control program in the country.

Risk factors for foot and mouth disease outbreaks in grazing beef cattle herds

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is considered one of the most important diseases of cattle. Recurrence of FMD outbreaks in Israel is common, even though routine vaccination of livestock is mandatory and control measures are applied during the outbreaks. Grazing beef herds are occasionally involved in these outbreaks and play an important role in disseminating the disease, due to the large efflux of animals from these herds to feedlots. Nevertheless, the risk factors for the occurrence of FMD among these herds have never been investigated. In 2011, Israel faced a large scale outbreak of serotype O FMD virus, which strongly affected beef cattle. We conducted a case–control study of 44 beef cattle herds grazing in the Golan Heights in order to determine the risk factors for FMDV infection. Data were analyzed using a generalized estimation equation (GEE) with a logit link function. Multivariable analysis was conducted for factors with p-value lower than 0.1 in the univariable analysis. The presence of calves under 6 months of age was found as a significant risk factor for FMDV infection in the univariable analysis (odds ratio (OR)=5.95, confidence intervals of 95% (CI95%)=1.59–22.29, p=0.008). This was also the only variable that remained statistically significant in the multivariable analysis. Herds in which more than 6 months between vaccination of adults and exposure had elapsed were in higher risk, albeit not statistically significant, for the occurrence of FMDV infection (OR=3.29, CI95%=0.83–12.99, p=0.089).The higher probability of infection in herds, which included young calves may be a result of their higher susceptibility due to administration of only one or no vaccine prior to the outbreak. The results of the study thus support increasing the frequency of vaccination of both cows and calves in grazing beef herds. Intensifying surveillance where young calves are abundant may also prove efficient for early detection of infected herds and for mitigating outbreaks of FMDV.

Current Status and Future Prospects to Achieve Foot-and-Mouth Disease Eradication in South America.

South America has a favourable position with respect to foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) compared with other FMD-affected regions due to the elimination of endemic clinical presentation of the disease. South America has reached the final stage of control and aims to eradicate the disease in the region under the provisions of the Hemispheric Program for the Eradication of FMD 2011-2020 (PHEFA). This programme aims at bringing eradication to completion, thereby eliminating the pool of foot-and-mouth disease genotypes active in South America. This plan includes a regional political agreement that provides strategies and technical guidelines for the eradication of foot-and-mouth disease from South America. It incorporates knowledge and experience regarding the disease's history and its connection with the different production systems, animal movement and trade. The Pan American Foot and Mouth Disease Center has led the control anderadication programmes, providing the framework for designing national and subregional programmes that have led to significant progress in controlling the disease in South America. The current situation is the result of several factors, including the proper implementation of a national control programmes, good veterinary infrastructure in most countries and public-private participation in the process of eradicating the disease. Notwithstanding the favourable health status, there are significant challenges for the goal of eradication. At this stage, South American countries should enhance their surveillance strategies particularly through the use of target or risk-based surveys that contribute to increase the degree of sensitivity in the search for viral circulation in the context of absence of clinical occurrence of FMD.

Development of a tetra-primer ARMS PCR-based assay for detection of a novel single-nucleotide polymorphism in the 5' untranslated region of the bovine ITGB6 receptor gene associated with foot-and-mouth disease susceptibility in cattle.

ITGB6 is known to be one of the major receptor components involved in host tropism of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus in cattle. A competitive PCR technique called ARMS PCR was adapted to identify a single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), G29A, db SNP Id: rs109075046, in the 5' untranslated region (5'UTR) of the bovine ITGB6 gene. Genotype profiling identified three kinds of genetic variation within the targeted SNP among Frieswal crossbred cattle. The occurrence of FMD in the three genotypes was further evaluated, revealing a clear role in the incidence of FMD in the studied population.

Typing and serological surveillance of FMDV in the African buffaloes in Zambia.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is endemic in Zambia. Little is known of the epidemiology of FMD virus (FMDV) in the country and this has led to the continuous occurrence of FMD in southern Zambia. FMD severely impacts pastoral and agro-pastoral communities who are most reliant on livestock products for economy and food security.

Study on the epidemiology of foot and mouth disease in Ethiopia

This study was designed to describe the status of foot and mouth disease (FMD) in Ethiopia, through analysis of FMD outbreak reports and the detection of antibodies, to address the possibility of establishing a disease-free zone. Serum samples collected from cattle between 2003 and 2006 for the serosurveillance of rinderpest were used for this study. The records of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development from 2002 to 2006 indicate that FMD outbreaks occurred each year in Ethiopia during this period, with the highest number in 2004, when 134 outbreaks took place. The highest rates were from the North Shoa zones of both the Oromia and Amhara regions. The serum samples were tested using the 3ABC enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kit, to identify antibodies against FMD. From a total of 4,465 sera, 10.5% (n = 467) tested positive. The highest seroprevalence was detected in samples from the Eastern zone of Rgray with 41.5%; followed by the Guji zone of Oromia and Yeka district of the city of Addis Ababa, with 32.7% and 30%, respectively. Antibodies specific to FMD virus were not detected in Gambella or Benishangul. The effects of cattle, sheep and goat density, both separately and together, were analysed with a spatial regression model, but did not have a significant effect on seroprevalence. This indicates that other factors, such as farming systems and livestock movement, play a significant role in the occurrence of FMD. Based on these study findings, it might be appropriate to establish disease-free zones in Gambella and Benishangul.

Outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease in Peninsular Malaysia from 2001 to 2007

This is a retrospective study of the outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in Peninsular Malaysia between 2001 and May 2007. In total, 270 outbreaks of FMD were recorded. Serotype O virus (89.95 %) and serotype A (7.7 %) had caused the outbreaks. Significant differences on the occurrence of FMD were found between the years (t = 5.73, P = 0.000, df = 11), months (t = 4.7, P = 0.000, df = 11), monsoon season (t = 2.63, P = 0.025, df = 10) and states (t = 4.84, P = 0.001, df = 10). A peak of outbreaks observed in 2003 could be due to increased animal movement and the other peak in 2006 could be due to a compromised FMD control activities due to activities on the eradication of highly pathogenic avian influenza. Cattle (86 % of outbreaks) suffered the most. However, no difference in disease occurrence between species was observed. The populations of cattle (r = 0.672, P = 0.023) and sheep (r = 0.678, P = 0.022) were significantly correlated with occurrence of FMD. Movement of animals (66 % of outbreaks) was the main source for outbreaks. A combination of control measures were implemented during outbreaks. In conclusion, the findings of this study show that FMD is endemic in Peninsular Malaysia, and information gained could be used to improve the existing control strategy.

Patterns, risk factors and characteristics of reported and perceived foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in Uganda

Patterns of outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in Uganda were elucidated from spatial and temporal retrospective data retrieved from monthly reports from District Veterinary Officers (DVOs) to the central administration for the years spanning 2001-2008. An assessment of perceived FMD occurrence, risk factors and the associated characteristics was made based on semi-structured questionnaires administered to the DVOs. During this period, a total of 311 FMD outbreaks were reported in 56 (70%) out of Uganda's 80 districts. The number of reported FMD outbreaks changed over time and by geographical regions. Occurrence of FMD was significantly associated with the dry season months (p = 0.0346), the time when animals movements are more frequent. The average number of FMD outbreaks was higher for some sub-counties adjacent to national parks than for other sub-counties, whilst proximity to international border only seemed to play a role at the southern border. DVOs believed that the major risk factor for FMD outbreaks was animal movements (odds ratio OR 50.8, confidence interval CI 17.8-144.6) and that most outbreaks were caused by introduction of sick animals.