Occurrence Of Aflatoxins Research Articles

Occurrence of Aflatoxin in Ready-To-Eat Roasted Snacks Obtained from Port Harcourt and Owerri, Nigeria

Aims: Microbial infestation of nuts and dried foods with the resultant production of aflatoxin is a global challenge to human health. This study aims to ascertain the safety of vended ready-to-eat cashews, groundnut and breadfruit.
 Study Design: This work is based on a completely randomized design with two replications and the average values calculated for the mean comparison.
 Place and Duration of Study: Imadavistic Laboratory, Port Harcourt and the Department of Biotechnology, Federal Institute of industrial Research, Oshodi, Nigeria, between January and November, 2022.
 Methodology: Forty samples purchased randomly were examined for proximate composition, microbial safety and presence of aflatoxins using standard conventional and molecular methods.
 Results: The respective mean percentage proximate compositions for groundnut, cashew and breadfruit were: protein (33.1±0.1, 14.9±0.3, 19.7±2.0), Carbohydrate (10.7±0.8, 16.5±2.2, 38.2±0.6), lipid (40.1±2.5, 34.3±1.3, 12.3±0.6), ash (1.8±0.1, 26.9±1.3,1.8±0.1), fiber (7.2±1.5, 20.3±0.6, 26.9±1.3) and moisture (7.0±0.1, 4.0±0.5, 7.8±1.6). Mycological count for groundnut, cashew and breadfruit ranged from 17 to 33; 5 to 17 and 2 to 17 log10 cfu/g, respectively. The mycological studies revealed that there were Aspergillus spp., Candida albicans, Mucor sp., Rhizopus sp., Fusarium sp., Penicillium sp. and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Aflatoxigenicity results reveal that 31.3% (10 of 32) of the fungi identified were able to produce aflatoxin and they were principally Aspergillus flavus. The range of aflatoxin in the samples was 6.96362 µg/kg of aflatoxin B1 in breadfruit obtained from Oji and Ekeonuwa to 1.07668 µg/kg of aflatoxin B2 obtained in cashew nuts from Rumokoro and Choba.
 Conclusion: The presence of aflatoxins, though within acceptable doses, underscores the need for proper processing of these roasted snacks.

Performance Test Of Myristica Fragrans Dryer Using A Heat System On An Electric Stove

Fakfak Regency is one of the regencies of West Papua province located in Indonesia. Fakfak Regency is also known as an abundant producer of myristica fragrans and seeds so that Fakfak City is often dubbed as the city of myristica fragrans. However, there is a problem that often occurs in myristica fragrans farmers, namely the occurrence of aflatoxin attacks. One way to deal with aflatoxin attacks caused by fungi and Aspergillus flavus is to dry myristica fragrans seeds. The goal to be achieved in this study is to determine the relationship between the drying time of myristica fragrans seeds with the amount of moisture content using a blower on an electric stove. As well as to find out the analysis of moisture content tests based on SNI standards from the results of drying myristica fragrans seeds using a blower on an electric stove. The method used in this study is the design of a myristica fragrans seed dryer using an electric stove. This design uses an electric stove as a drying heat source and uses a blower to suck the heat temperature from the electric stove. The results of this study are The relationship between drying time and moisture content in myristica fragrans drying equipment using an electric stove is y = -3.2034x + 44.795 with R2 = 0.9463. Based on SNI standard 01-0006-1993, the appropriate moisture content value in a myristica fragrans seed dryer using an electric stove is, within 10 hours a moisture content value of 9.77% is obtained and within 13 hours a moisture content value of 6.28% is obtained

Aflatoksin: Aspek kesehatan, metode reduksi dan deteksinya

Food contaminant aflatoxin is a mycotoxin produced by Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus. This article aims to discover the pathophysiological, immunological, pharmacological, toxicity, and reduction and detection methods of aflatoxin. Kinds of literature were obtained from Research Gate, Pubmed, and Science Direct with the primary keyword “aflatoxin”. Pathophysiologically, aflatoxin-contaminated food has been proven to cause necrosis in liver cells, developing into liver cancer. Immunologically, aflatoxin decreases monocyte and dendritic cell phagocytosis, neutrophil cell ATP production, and pro-inflammatory cytokine synthesis. Aflatoxin toxicity is at the LD50 of 12-16 mg/kg b.w, causing death. Pharmacologically, 120-201 µg/kg b.w causes aflatoxicosis, in vivo studies indicated that NovaSil, Sulfarophan, and Monanthotaxis caffra leaf extract may reduce its toxicity. Aflatoxins are highly thermostable; hence, once food has been contaminated, they cannot be destroyed by normal cooking process. The control and reduction should be conducted in post-harvest handling, common physical means practiced are heating, drying, and smoking. Chemically using ozone, 0.5 sodium bisulfate, 1% sodium hydroxide, 5% acetic acid, and prochloraz. Biologically using Flavobacterium aurantiacum B-184, Bacillus velezensis DY3108, and, a consortium of Geobacillus and Tepidimicrobium bacteria. Aflatoxin can be detected using TLC, HPLC, MS, ELISA, and UHPLC-ESI MS/MS. The prevention of aflatoxin occurrence is done through good post-harvest handling, good manufacturing practices, and applying regulations accordingly to ensure food products and feed are at acceptable levels of aflatoxin.

Proximate composition and prevalence and exposure assessment of aflatoxins intake through consumption of fresh carrot and processed marketed carrot products in South Punjab, Pakistan

Carrot (Daucus carota L.) is a nutrient-rich vegetable that is widely cultivated and consumed in Pakistan in both raw and processed form. Data on the proximate composition and natural occurrence of aflatoxins (AFs) in carrots and marketed carrot products is lacking in Pakistan and the risk exposure of AF has not been characterised before. Thus, the current study was designed to know the frequently consumed carrot products with per capita consumption, and risk assessment of AF through these products in various regions of South Punjab Pakistan. A survey was conducted with 125 respondents and appeared that raw carrot, fresh carrot juice, gajrella and pickle are the most frequently consumed marketed carrot products with per capita consumption i.e. 62.5, 46.6, 16.2 and 14.5 gday-1, respectively. Proximate analysis revealed that carrot root and processed carrot products contained 9.65–98.2% moisture, 0.23–0.60% ash, 6.2–14.1% carbohydrates, 0.31–0.80% protein, 0.40–3.7% fat and 1.4–4.20% fibre. AF analysis revealed that 36.67% of samples were contaminated with TAF. Thirty-five (35%) percent of samples were tainted with aflatoxin B1, and 13.33% of samples were contaminated with aflatoxin B2. All the samples of carrot root, fresh carrot juice and gajrella contained TAF levels less than the maximum limit (ML) (2 ppb) assigned by the European Union (EU). However, the entire AFB1 positive samples of carrot pickle contained AFB1 levels of more than 2 ppb exceeding the ML. Furthermore, daily dietary exposure of TAFs ranged from 0.11 to 1.27 ng/kg of body weight per day which relatively exceeds the permissible limit of 1 ng/kg of body weight per day as defined by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. This is the first prevalence and risk assessment report of AF in marketed processed carrot products in Pakistan. These baseline data are an initial step in the effort to deal with this significant food safety issue and the establishment of legislation for AF in marketed products is needed in Pakistan.

Determination of mycotoxins in nuts, cereals, legumes, and coffee beans and effectiveness of a selenium‐based decontamination treatment

AbstractLiquid chromatography‐tandem mass spectrometry (LC‐MS/MS) was used for the rapid quantification of multiple mycotoxins, specifically aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, and G2 (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2), ochratoxin A (OTA), deoxynivalenol (DON), and zearalenone (ZEN), in walnuts, pistachios, peanuts, coffee beans, rice, and chickpeas from various countries. Total counts of fungi, Aspergillus flavus, and Aspergillus parasiticus were also assessed, along with the effectiveness of a decontamination treatment with inorganic selenium to reduce mycotoxin levels. Of the 78 samples tested, 69% were contaminated with mycotoxins. ZEN, the predominant mycotoxin contaminant, was detected in all the contaminated samples in concentrations often exceeding the maximum level, followed by AFG1 (28% of the contaminated samples), DON (22%), AFG2 (11%), and AFB1 (5.5%). The occurrence of aflatoxins was associated with high proportions of A. flavus and A. parasiticus. Complete removal of AFB1 from walnuts and DON from roasted coffee beans was achieved by treatment with aqueous selenium, while the levels of ZEN and AFG1 were respectively lowered by 65% to 89% depending on the commodity and by about 56% in roasted coffee beans. While this novel treatment is a promising approach for mycotoxin decontamination, it is not intended to replace safe practices upstream.

Drying Of Kanlıca Mushroom By The Hot Air Drying Method And The Investigations Of Its Effects On Its Quality

In this study done, by providing the hot air drying of Kanlıca mushroom collected from Karabuk city; prevention of aflatoxin occurrence, shelf life extension, taking precaution against early putrefaction and decomposition, protection of the beneficent aromas in its content have been ensured. As the dried product, Kanlıca mushroom, the most consumed endemic plant spicy in terms of the vitamin and the mineral that it contains among the mushroom groups, has been used. By means of hot air drying, drying has been done at five different (30oC, 40oC, 50oC, 60oC and 70oC) temperatures. The best result in terms of water activity, colour changes, energy consumption and drying duration has been obtained in the experiments at 50oC. The water activity values of products (fresh mushroom water activity: 0,983 aw) dried in hot air drying processes have been found in 0,429 and 0,173 interval (in literature lower than 0,6) and according to the colour analysis experiments result, L*, a*, b*, C*, Ho, ∆E, BI values of Kanlıca mushroom dried at different temperatures have been calculated. According to the result of the analyses, it has been detected that the preservation of mushrooms by freezing and hot air drying is appropriate.

Occurrence and risk characterization of aflatoxin M1 in milk samples from southeastern Iran using the margin of exposure approach.

This study aimed to investigate Aflatoxin-M1 (AFM1) contamination in pasteurized and raw milk samples consumed in Kerman and Rafsanjan in southeastern Iran. In this cross-sectional study, a total of 100 samples of raw (n = 67) and pasteurized (n = 33) milk were randomly collected from retail stores, supermarkets, and milk transport tankers in the winter of 2020 and the summer of 2021. The level of AFM1 contamination in the collected samples was evaluated by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FD). AFM1 was detected in 95% of samples and its median concentration was 17.38 ng/L. The median concentration of AFM1 in the pasteurized milk samples (24.89 ng/L) was significantly higher than in the raw milk samples (13.54 ng/L). The AFM1 contamination level in 20% (raw = 13% and pasteurized = 7%) of the samples was higher than the maximum permitted level (MPL) recommended by the European Union (i.e., 50 ng/L), whilst 4% (raw = 3% and pasteurized = 1%) of the samples was higher than the Iranian maximum standard limit (i.e., 100 ng/L). The hazard index (HI) was higher than 1 in 16%, 18%, and 35% of total milk samples for men, women, and children, respectively. The AFM1 contamination level in the milk samples collected in southeastern Iran was worrying. The margin of exposure (MoE) values were lower than 10,000 for children. Because aflatoxins are among the most potent carcinogens known, prevention of milk contamination in all stages from the farm to the table can considerably reduce the community's exposure to AFM1 and its consequent health risks.

Correlation between Aspergillus flavus fungal biomass and aflatoxin contamination in harvested maize: insights from Kenya and Tanzania

Controlling the occurrence of aflatoxins in foods must be accompanied by managing the fungi responsible for their production. The abundance and diversity of aflatoxin-producing Aspergillus flavus are responsible for the accumulation of these toxins in crops, posing a persistent threat to public health and the economy in tropical developing countries. A study was conducted to investigate the occurrence and level of A. flavus and relate them to aflatoxin levels in maize in Kenya and Tanzania. A total of 786 maize samples were collected during harvesting in selected areas of the two countries for analysis. The fungal abundance in the samples was measured as the amount of fungal DNA relative to maize DNA. This was accomplished by quantifying the fungal DNA using qPCR, targeting the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) gene, while the maize DNA was quantified through the alpha-tubulin gene, the two genes known to be conserved. Aflatoxins were quantified using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography, coupled with ultra-high sensitivity, ultra-fast triple quadrupole tandem-mass spectrophotometer. A. flavus was detected in 88.5% of the 786 tested samples, and the average fungal load for these samples (expressed as the log host/pathogen ratio) was 5.53. Aflatoxin occurrence was positive in 31.9% of the samples, with an average level of 2.3 ± 0.643 ppb. The study established a positive relationship between the occurrence and level of aflatoxin B1 and the presence and biomass of A. flavus, which was statistically proven. These findings emphasize the need to place substantial attention on preharvest control of A. flavus in cereal fields as an effort to control the accumulation of aflatoxin B1 in foods.

Determination of Aflatoxins in Milk by PS-MWCNT/OH Composite Nanofibers Solid-Phase Extraction Coupled with HPLC-FLD.

In this work, a sensitive analytical method based on packed-nanofiber solid-phase extraction (PFSPE), after derivatization with trichloroacetic acid and high-performance liquid chromatography with a fluorescence detector (HPLC-FLD), has been established for the determination of aflatoxins (AFs) in milk. Polystyrene polymeric multi-walled carbon nanotube (PS-MWCNT/OH) composite nanofibers were fabricated by electrospinning and used to prepare homemade extraction columns. The extraction efficiency of the HPLC-FLD analysis method was sufficiently investigated and validated. After the implementation of optimal conditions, all of the analytes were separated efficiently and the components of the milk matrix did not disturb the determination. The obtained linear ranges of the calibration curves were 0.2-20 ng/mL for AFTB1 and AFTG2, 0.1-10 ng/mL for AFTB2, and 0.4-40 ng/mL for AFTG1. The recoveries ranged between 80.22% and 96.21%. The relative standard deviations (RSDs) for the intra-day and inter-day results ranged from 2.81-6.43% to 3.42-7.75%, respectively. Generally, 11 mg of sorbent and 200 μL of elution solvent were used to directly extract all of the AFs from the milk matrix. Reported herein is the first utilization of PS-MWCNT/OH-PFSPE HPLC-FLD to simultaneously analyze the occurrence of aflatoxins in milk.

Aflatoxin levels and Aspergillus species in maize in the Province of Isabela, Philippines

AbstractThe province of Isabela is the top maize producer in the Philippines. The intensive cultivation and the tropical climate in the region may favour fungal growth and aflatoxin contamination in maize grains. Thus, the study aimed to determine the occurrence of aflatoxin and mycotoxigenic Aspergillus species in maize varieties in this region. Samples were obtained in six municipalities from hybrid (Bt) maize (n = 101) and open‐pollinated varieties (n = 6) during the dry season (March and April) of 2019. Aflatoxin levels were quantified through enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay, and Aspergillus species were identified through cultural and molecular methods. Aflatoxin was detected in 50.5% of maize samples; 49.5% of samples were less than the limit of detection (3 μg/kg), 16.8% with 3–20 μg/kg, 10.9% with 21–50 μg/kg and 22.8% above 50 μg/kg. Samples within the acceptable level were 66.3% for food (<20 μg/kg) and 77.2% for animal feed (<50 μg/kg), while 22.8% of samples were above the acceptable level of the Philippine National Standard for raw maize grains. More than 90% of Aspergillus species detected were A. flavus. Other species identified were A. tamarii and A. terreus. Despite the dry production season in the province with low relative humidity during harvesting, inadequate post‐harvest practices and the presence of A. flavus elevated the level of aflatoxin in sample grains. Additional work involving multi‐year surveys is needed to confirm the results and conclusions of this study.

Investigation of aflatoxins occurrence in flavoring preparations for the alcoholic beverage industry

An exploratory study was carried out to determine the occurrence of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, and G2 in different aromatic preparations used in the production of bitters, liqueurs and flavored wines. Aflatoxin analysis was performed by liquid-liquid extraction followed by immunoaffinity column for purification of the extracts. The aflatoxins were quantitatively detected using high performance liquid chromatography technique with post-column derivatization and fluorescence detection. After in-house validation, the method was applied to the determination of aflatoxins in 40 samples of aromatic preparations used in the production of aperitifs and bitter drinks, vermouths and aromatized wines, and nut and citrus liqueurs. This method showed good accuracy between days (72%–95% recovery) and precision (3%–13% relative standard deviation). None of the samples analyzed contained detectable levels of aflatoxins. Only in one sample of aromatic extract of vermouth and aromatized wine aflatoxins B1 and G1 were found below the limit of quantification. From the results, it was concluded that these extracts for commercial purposes are safe for human consumption in terms of aflatoxin concentrations. In addition, the general outcome of the study showed that an accurate analysis of AFs can be obtained in a short time with a high sensitivity, even on difficult matrices such as hydro-alcoholic mixtures of different aromatic preparations.

Aflatoxins in food products consumed in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: A preliminary dietary risk assessment.

Aflatoxins (AFs) are hepatotoxic, mutagenic, genotoxic, and immunosuppressive toxins. Several food commodities consumed in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) are susceptible to AF contamination because of improper storage practices and the warm and humid climate of the country. Therefore, the occurrence of AFs in 2388 food samples was measured and the estimated daily intake (EDI) of AFs in Saudi adults was assessed. The risks of AFB1 exposure were characterized using the margin of exposure (MoE) approach and by estimating the number of possible hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cases in the KSA. The results revealed that 12.1% of the analyzed samples were contaminated with AFs and the highest concentration of total AFs was observed in the nut and seed group. The mean EDI of AFB1 was estimated to be 0.21 and 0.55 ng/kg body weight (bw)/day for the lower bound (LB) and upper bound (UB) scenarios, respectively. The MoEs were estimated to be 1902.4 and 722.1, while the estimated liver cancer risk ranged from 0.002 to 0.008 cancer cases/year/100,000 persons. Based on the study's findings, contamination with AFs in the KSA is low; however, AFs are considered potent genotoxic contaminants, and therefore, exposure through food should be kept as low as possible.

The Effect of Harvest Dates on Production, Lipid Composition, Aspergillus Section Flavi Contamination, and Aflatoxin Production in High Oleic Acid Peanut Cultivars in Brazil

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of harvest dates on peanut yield, total lipid, fatty acid composition, phytosterols, Aspergillus section Flavi, and aflatoxin occurrence in two important high oleic peanut cultivars (IAC 503 and IAC OL3) in Brazil. Peanut yield and shelling percentage variation were not significant throughout the harvest dates for both cultivars. Total lipid concentration was higher in IAC 503 (48 g/100 g) than in IAC OL3 (45 g/100 g) cultivar and increased significantly over harvest time. Stearic acid showed significant variation during the harvest dates among the fatty acids. Stigmasterol concentration increased over harvest time in both cultivars. The harvest date influenced the quantities of Aspergillus section Flavi in the IAC OL3 cultivar. No sample showed contamination by aflatoxins. The proposed harvest dates slightly influenced the main compounds evaluated. These preliminary results are promising, considering the versatility they could bring to the peanut production chain.

Aflatoxin B1 Degradation by Ery4 Laccase: From In Vitro to Contaminated Corn.

Aflatoxins (AFs) are toxic secondary metabolites produced by Aspergillus spp. and are found in food and feed as contaminants worldwide. Due to climate change, AFs occurrence is expected to increase also in western Europe. Therefore, to ensure food and feed safety, it is mandatory to develop green technologies for AFs reduction in contaminated matrices. With this regard, enzymatic degradation is an effective and environmentally friendly approach under mild operational conditions and with minor impact on the food and feed matrix. In this work, Ery4 laccase, acetosyringone, ascorbic acid, and dehydroascorbic acid were investigated in vitro, then applied in artificially contaminated corn for AFB1 reduction. AFB1 (0.1 µg/mL) was completely removed in vitro and reduced by 26% in corn. Several degradation products were detected in vitro by UHPLC-HRMS and likely corresponded to AFQ1, epi-AFQ1, AFB1-diol, or AFB1dialehyde, AFB2a, and AFM1. Protein content was not altered by the enzymatic treatment, while slightly higher levels of lipid peroxidation and H2O2 were detected. Although further studies are needed to improve AFB1 reduction and reduce the impact of this treatment in corn, the results of this study are promising and suggest that Ery4 laccase can be effectively applied for the reduction in AFB1 in corn.

Determination of Knowledge Based on Aflatoxin Poisoning among Broiler Farmers in Nairobi City County, Kenya

Background: There is a scarcity of information concerning knowledge of aflatoxin contamination of feeds among farmers even in aflatoxin-prone regions in Kenya. Thus, knowledge of aflatoxins in feeds among poultry farmers is of paramount importance in designing plans to minimize risks of aflatoxin exposure. Therefore, this study sought to assess the Determinants of Knowledge on Aflatoxin Among Broiler farmers in Nairobi City County, Kenya.
 Methodology: The study utilized an analytical cross-sectional study design. A total of 240 farmers were sampled from a population of 600 farmers within Nairobi City County. A structured questionnaire was administered to farmers within Nairobi City County. SPSS version 26 was used to analyze the data descriptively. Results were presented in tables and figures. Ethical approval was sought from relevant authorities and parties before the commencement of the study.
 Results: Results from the study show that the majority of the farmers (58.2%) had knowledge of aflatoxin. There was a significant association (p<0.05) between the socio-demographic characteristics of farmers and knowledge of aflatoxin.
 Conclusion: The study concludes that the farmers had adequate knowledge of aflatoxin occurrence in feeds and methods to reduce the contamination. There is a need for continuous sensitization of farmers on aflatoxin, particularly on feed management practices by the Ministry of Agriculture and Ministry of Health Division of Public Health in Kenya.

Aflatoxin in peanuts and maize: an overview on occurrence, regulations, prevention, and control methods

Aflatoxins belong to a group of highly carcinogenic mycotoxins, produced mainly byAspergillus flavus andAspergillus parasiticus in various agricultural food commodities. It is hard to eliminate them from food and feed due to their high stability. Aflatoxin contamination in food grains, particularly peanut and maize, continues to cause significant health concerns in the population of developing nations. They can be fatal to humans and animals. Several actions can be taken to protect both humans and animals by following all applicable laws and regulations controlling aflatoxins, preventing pre- and post-harvest contamination, reducing the synthesis of aflatoxins, decontamination, and detoxification. This review will focus on the occurrence of aflatoxins, factors affecting aflatoxin production, worldwide regulations of aflatoxins, adverse effects on health and economy, prevention, and control strategies for aflatoxins, specifically in peanuts and corn, to assure food safety and security. This review is intended to be educational not just for health-conscious consumers but also for authorities in the field to pave the path for future research to address the gaps in knowledge about mycotoxins and food safety.

Isolation, Identification, and Characterization of the Native Yeast Strains from Homemade Cheese to Assess their Eliminating Impact on the Aflatoxin B1 and M1 of the Simulated Gastrointestinal Fluid.

The occurrence of aflatoxins in food products is a silent threat to human health worldwide. A range of strategies has been introduced to address the bioavailability of aflatoxins, which are considered microbial tools to provide a low-cost and promising approach. The present study focused on the separation of yeast strains from the homemade cheese rind layer to investigate the ability of native yeasts to eliminate AB1 and AM1 from simulated gastrointestinal fluids. Homemade cheese samples were prepared from different locations in Tehran provinces and yeast strains were isolated and identified through the biochemical methods and molecular analysis of internal transcribed spacer and D1/D2 domain of 26S rDNA regions. Isolated strains were screened using simulated gastrointestinal fluids, and the ability of yeast strains to absorb aflatoxin was evaluated. Out of 13 strains, 7 yeast strains were not affected by 5 ppm AFM1 while 11 strains did not show any significant response to 5 mg.L-1 (ppm) of AFB1. On the other hand, 5 strains were able to successfully tolerate 20 ppm AFB1. Candidate yeasts showed different abilities to remove aflatoxins B1 and M1. In addition, C. lusitaniae, G. geotrichum, G. candidum, and C. sanyaensis exhibited a significant ability to detoxify aflatoxins from the gastrointestinal fluid, respectively. Our data suggest that yeast communities with essential effects on the quality of homemade cheese appear to be precise candidates for the potential elimination of aflatoxins from the gastrointestinal fluid.

Aflatoxin contamination of animal feeds and its predictors among dairy farms in Northwest Ethiopia: One Health approach implications.

In dairy farming, animal feed is the first line of food safety. Animal feed can become contaminated and spoiled on farms or in storage facilities due to the diverse microorganisms that are naturally present around or on various animal feeds. This study aims to assess the level of aflatoxin and predictors in animal feeds among dairy farms in the South Gondar Zone of Ethiopia. A total of 100 samples of each animal feed ingredient (atella, hay, commercial concentrates, and cut and carry pasture) were obtained. A total of 400 animal feed ingredient samples were tested separately among 100 randomly chosen dairy farmers for aflatoxin analysis. Simultaneously, swabs from cow udders and water samples were also collected. Using a structured and pretested questionnaire, the knowledge and practices of animal feed administrators responsible for managing animal feed were also evaluated. Descriptive statistics and logistic regression models were used to identify determinants. From the total animal feed analyzed, 96% was positive for aflatoxins. Feed storage facilities, feed storage duration, education of animal feed administrators, mixed concentrates, and previous training were found to be associated with aflatoxin contamination levels in animal feeds. The levels of aflatoxin contamination in animal feeds were found to be higher than the recommended limit; these findings suggest the spread of aflatoxin contamination between humans and animals. Furthermore, the occurrence of aflatoxins in the environment results from milk becoming contaminated with aflatoxins. A One Health strategy should therefore receive special consideration to tackle such problems and safeguard consumer safety.

Occurrence of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, and G2 in beers produced in Brazil and their carcinogenic risk evaluation

The aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1, and G2) were investigated in 60 beer samples of the leading commercial beer brands, with and without adjuncts, produced in Brazil. An analytical method was standardized and validated by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence detection. The extraction was carried out using immunoaffinity columns. The limit of quantification (LOQ) ranged from 10 to 30 ng/L−1, and the mean recoveries were 88.5%, 98.0%, 98.3%, and 110.1% for AFB1 and AFB2 AFG1, and AFG2, respectively. The percentage of samples positive for total aflatoxins (AFT) was 100% for beers with adjuncts and 80% for beers without adjuncts (“pure malt”). Of the whole beer samples, 88.3% showed the occurrence of at least one of the aflatoxins. AFB2 had the highest incidence in the beer samples, with the highest contamination level with adjuncts. The median levels of AFB2 were 27.0 and 40.4 ng/mL for the group of beers with and without adjuncts, respectively. Among the positive samples, the median value for AFT and AFB1 were 40.9 and 16 ng/mL, respectively. Carcinogenic risk characterization was performed for exposure to AFB2 and AFT by estimating the margin of exposure (MOE). The MOE for elevated beer consumption (>160 mL/day) was 5303 for a beer with adjuncts and 3643 for pure-malt beers. In summary, the results found in this study demonstrate that elevated beer consumption may pose a risk of exposure to the carcinogenic effects of aflatoxins, especially AFB2. The consumption of pure malt beers produced and commercialized in Brazil represents an even higher risk than the consumption of beer with added adjuncts. This fact alone requires further investigation since it may suggest that the barley from which the malt is produced may contribute to the occurrence of aflatoxins in beer, at least in Brazil.

Occurrence of aflatoxins in nuts and peanut butter imported to UAE

Nuts are an important food group that contributes to maintaining health; however, they can be a source of exposure to aflatoxins. This study was conducted from 2017 to 2021 to assess the incidence of aflatoxins in nuts and nut products imported to the UAE from 57 countries. Associations between container type and processing technique and aflatoxin levels were also analyzed. A total of 5401 samples of pistachios, peanuts, peanut butter, and mixed nuts were examined using HPLC-FLD analysis in conjunction with immunoaffinity cleanup. In nuts, non-conformity was detected in samples imported from 32 different countries. Mean aflatoxin values for the non-compliant samples ranged from 81.0 to 92.7 μg/kg in pistachios, peanuts, and mixed nuts. A significant difference (p < 0.05) was found between mean aflatoxin levels in samples of peanut butter (29.3 μg/kg) compared to the other types of nuts. Nuts packed in containers made of fabric material had the highest mean aflatoxin levels of 108.1 μg/kg, while 29.7 μg/kg was the lowest mean level and was detected in nuts packed in glass. Ground samples had the highest aflatoxin levels (158.9 μg/kg) among processed products. This report will be valuable as a reference document in developing approaches to control nut importation and for establishing procedures that prevent food safety risks due to aflatoxin exposure. A need was underlined for the regulating authority to audit companies importing nuts, ensure safe practices are in place, and establish standards to minimize contamination and prevent the need for product rejection at the border.