Occupational Class Research Articles

Technological Change, Tasks and Class Inequality in Europe

Neo-Weberian occupational class schemas, rooted in industrial-age employment relations, are a standard socio-economic position measure in social stratification. Previous research highlighted Erikson-Goldthorpe-Portocarero (EGP)-based schemas’ difficulties in keeping up with changing labour markets, but few tested alternative explanations. This article explores how job tasks linked to technological change and rising economic inequality might confound the links between employment relations, classes, and life chances. Using the European Working Conditions Survey covering the European Union (EU)-27 countries, this article analyses over time and by gender: 1) the task distribution between social classes; and 2) whether tasks predict class membership and life chances. Decomposition analyses suggest that tasks explain class membership and wage inequality better than theorised employment relations. However, intellectual/routine tasks and digital tools driving income inequality are well-stratified by occupational classes. Therefore, this article does not argue for a class (schema) revolution but for fine-tuning the old instrument to portray market inequalities in the digital age.

Time period effects in work disability due to common mental disorders among young employees in Sweden-a register-based cohort study across occupational classes and employment sectors.

We aimed to investigate time period effects in the risk of work disability, defined as long-term sickness absence (LTSA) and disability pension (DP) due to common mental disorders (CMDs), among young employees according to employment sector (private/public) and occupational class (non-manual/manual). Three cohorts, including all employed individuals with complete information on employment sector and occupational class, aged 19-29 years and resident in Sweden on 31 December 2004, 2009 and 2014 (n = 573516, 665138 and 600889, respectively) were followed for 4 years. Multivariate-adjusted hazard ratios (aHRs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were estimated to examine the risk of LTSA and DP due to CMDs using Cox regression analyses. In all cohorts, public sector employees had higher aHRs for LTSA due to CMDs than private sector employees, irrespective of occupational class, e.g. aHR, 95% CI: 1.24, 1.16-1.33 and 1.15, 1.08-1.23 among non-manual and manual workers in cohort 2004. The rates of DP due to CMDs were much lower in cohorts 2009 and 2014 than 2004 leading to uncertain risk estimates in the later cohorts. Still, public sector manual workers had a higher risk for DP due to CMDs than manual workers in the private sector in cohort 2014 than in 2004 (aHR, 95% CI: 1.54, 1.34-1.76 and 3.64, 2.14-6.18, respectively). Manual workers in the public sector seem to have a higher risk of work disability due to CMDs than their counterparts in the private sector calling for the need for early intervention strategies to prevent long-term work disability.

Working from home 22 months on from the beginning of COVID-19: What have we learned for the future provision of transport services?

COVID-19 has delivered an unintended positive consequence through working from home (WFH). While it may be some time until we are able to indicate, with some confidence, the impact that WFH will have on traffic congestion and crowding on public transport, there is a sense already that it is a game changer, and indeed is one of the most effective policy levers that the transport sector has had for many years in ‘managing’ the performance of the transport network. This paper draws on multiple ways of survey data that have been collected since March 2020 when the pandemic first resulted in severe restrictions in Australia. We present the evidence up to December 2021 on the incidence of WFH in two geographical jurisdiction – the Greater Sydney Metropolitan Area (GSMA) and South-East Queensland (SEQ) - and how it has been received by employees and employers from the height of restrictions up to a period when restrictions were relaxed, followed by further lockdowns throughout Australia. We show what this might mean for work productivity, lifestyle, and the changing preferences for passenger modes. With a growing preference, within some occupation classes, to WFH 1–2 days a week, and a good spread through the weekdays, we discuss what this means for the way we analyse the impact of transport initiatives on the performance of the transport network with a particular emphasis on the growth in suburbanisation of transport improvements, less costly service and infrastructure improvements, and the changing role of public transport.

How Far Does the Diverse Economies Approach Take Us?

How Far Does the Diverse Economies Approach Take Us?

Double Poverty: Class, Employment Type, Gender and Time Poor Precarious Workers in the South Korean Service Economy

Double poverty refers to the lack of both time and income. This study analyses precarious workers’ double poverty, focusing on the case of South Korea, where the characteristics of its labour market perpetuate the risk of double poverty. This study set less than two-thirds of the median free time and less than two-thirds of the median income as poverty lines. Using Korean Labour & Income Panel Study data, this article identifies the double poor, experiencing both time and income poverty in the Korean labour market. It then examines the effects of occupational class, employment type, company size, social wage, trade union membership, and gender on double poverty. It is found that double poverty impacts women workers, low-skilled service workers, and non-regular workers. This study contributes to the discussion of precarious work by analysing the double poverty of time and income of precarious workers. Time poverty limits workers’ capacity to escape income poverty as they are unable to work longer and invest in household production or human capital. Consequently, the workers’ lack of time deepens their precarity.

Childhood adversity and risk of later labor market marginalization in young employees in Sweden.

The present study examined the independent and combined effects of childhood adversity (CA) and occupational class on the risk of future labor market marginalization (LMM) in young employees in Sweden. Occupational class (non-manual/manual workers) was also explored as a potential mediator. This population-based longitudinal cohort study included 556 793 employees, 19-29 years, residing in Sweden in 2009. CAs included parental death, parental mental and somatic disorders, parental separation, household public assistance, single-parent household and residential instability. Measures of LMM included long-term unemployment (LTU), long-term sickness absence (LTSA) and disability pension. Estimates of risk of each LMM measure, between 2010 and 2016 were calculated as hazard ratios (HRs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs), using a Cox regression analysis. Those exposed to CA had an elevated risk for all measures of LMM. Manual workers with a history of household public assistance had the highest risk estimates compared to non-manual workers with no CAs [adjusted HR spanning from 1.59 (LTSA) to 2.50 (LTU)]. Regardless of occupational class, the risk of LMM grew higher with increasing number of CAs (e.g. adjusted HR of LMM in manual workers with 3+ CAs: 1.87, 95% CI: 1.81-1.94). These patterns persisted after adjustments for a range of confounders, including psychiatric and somatic morbidity. Last, we found a small but significant mediating effect of occupational class in the association between CA and LMM. Information on CAs are important determinants of LMM in young adults, and especially in manual workers.

Sociodemographic Factors Associated with Depression Among Persons with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in The Family Medicine Clinic of a Tertiary Hospital in Southern Nigeria.

Diabetes Mellitus (DM) is a chronic Non-Communicable Disease (NCD) with rising prevalence worldwide. DM increases the risk for depression as the prevalence of depression has been reported to be three times more in diabetics than in non-diabetics. Though depressive symptoms are more common in diabetes, they are not usually recognized and treated. Little is known about the predictors of depression in this group of people, especially among the Nigerian population. This study explored the sociodemographic factors associated with depression in patients with type 2 DM without prior psychiatric history. This was a cross-sectional study conducted among two hundred and sixty-four patients using structured questionnaires. Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences version 20. Chi-square tests were performed to compare associations between categorical variables. A probability (p) value less than 0.05 was taken as statistically significant. Females [176 (66%)] were three times more than males [88 (33.3%)] respectively. The prevalence of depression was 49.2%. Level of education (p= 0.008), occupation (p= 0.014), and social class (p= 0.040) were significantly associated with depression among the respondents. Depression was higher among the older age group, females, and the widowed. Females and older adults were more affected by depression. The predictors of depression were level of education, occupation, and social class. Thus, there is a need to screen those who have been diagnosed with T2DM for depression, especially females and older adult patients.

Cohort profile: The Vitality 90+ Study—a cohort study on health and living conditions of the oldest old in Tampere, Finland

PurposeVitality 90+ is an ongoing population-based study with repeated cross-sectional data collections. The study was designed to examine trends in health, functioning, living conditions, quality of life and care needs...

Direct and indirect effects of socioeconomic status on sepsis risk and mortality: a mediation analysis of the HUNT Study

BackgroundSocioeconomic status (SES) may influence risk of sepsis and sepsis-related mortality, but to what extent lifestyle and health-related factors mediate this effect is not known.MethodsThe study included 65 227 participants...

Toward Universal Health Coverage: Regional Inequalities and Potential Solutions for Alleviating Catastrophic Health Expenditure in the Post-poverty Elimination Era of China.

This study took Beijing as an example to estimate the incidence and regional inequalities of catastrophic health expenditures (CHE) in a megacity of China. This study used data from the Health Services Survey Beijing (HSSB) 2018. Logistic regressions were used to investigate the risk factors for experiencing CHE, and concentration curves, the concentration index and its decomposition method based on probit models were used to estimate the inequalities in CHE. CHE occurred in 25.51% of the households of the outer suburb villages, 6.78% of the households of the inner-city area communities, 17.10% of the households of the villages of the inner-city areas, and 11.91% of the households of the communities of the outer suburbs. In areas in the outer suburbs, households with private insurance coverage were associated with a lowered risk of CHE, and lower educational attainment and lower occupational class were related to an increasing risk of CHE. This study also discovered pro-rich financing disparities in CHE in Beijing, with the outer suburbs having the highest levels of CHE disparity. When it comes to the observed contributions of disparities in CHE, a significant portion of them is connected to the sorts of occupations, educational levels, and residential status. The impoverishment brought on by medical expenses and CHE must still be taken into account in the post-poverty elimination era. The megacity of China was discovered to have significant regional differences in the incidence of pro-rich financing inequity in CHE. Disparities in socioeconomic status (SES), one of the controllable variables, may be a key area to address to lower the risk and minimize CHE inequality in megacities towards the path to UHC. Additionally, it is important to consider the financial protection impact of inclusive supplementary medical insurance on lowering the likelihood of CHE in the periphery areas.

Transformations of Race and Class in South Africa: Discussion Article of Book on Urban Inequality: Theory, Evidence and Method in Johannesburg by Owen Crankshaw

ABSTRACT This Discussion Article examines the exciting, innovative new book (2022) by Owen Crankshaw. It focuses on a summary including some comments on Crankshaw‘s key findings for the Greater Johannesburg Area for 1970–2011. It focuses primarily on his book’s Part 1 on issues of “Occupational Class Structure transformations”, but with some consideration also of Part 2 on geographical housing “Spatial Order transformations” by race and class (the author’s concepts). These core findings on socioeconomic transformations over this 40-year period have very important implications for political debate about the future of South Africa. These debates are vital not only for academics, but equally for public intellectuals and social activists in our country, and also for a wider readership in other countries particularly of the South where such urban inequality questions of class, poverty and social marginalization are fundamental. With this broad audience in mind, empirical findings are summarized and its methodology assessed, in general in very favorable light. Nonetheless, critical questions are raised about the book’s reliance on comparative case studies of cities of the North with little reflection on political implications for “Southern” cities. It is also critiqued for insufficient theoretical consideration of the impact of a global post-1970s, knowledge-based Capitalist Industrial Revolution on the class structure of Johannesburg. Notwithstanding, this is a sociological book of very high scholarship whose findings about post-Apartheid South African transformation are a must-read and must-debate.

The effect modification of occupational social class in the association between sex and type 2 diabetes: results from the Brazilian Longitudinal Study of Adult Health (ELSA-Brasil).

We evaluated data from 14,156 baseline participants of the Brazilian Longitudinal Study of Adult Health (ELSA-Brasil) collected from 2008 to 2010, to analyze the effect modification of occupational social class on the association between sex and prevalence of type 2 diabetes. The crude and age-adjusted prevalence, according to sex and occupational social class, were estimated using generalized linear models with binomial distribution and logarithmic link function. This model was also used to estimate prevalence ratios (PR), adjusting for age group, race/skin color, and maternal education. The effect modification was measured in the multiplicative and additive scales. Males had higher crude and age-adjusted prevalence in all occupational social class strata. As occupational social class increases, the prevalence among males and females decreases. The PR of males to females decreased according to occupational class: 66% (PR = 1.66; 95%CI: 1.44; 1.90), 39% (PR = 1.39; 95%CI: 1.02; 1.89), and 28% (PR = 1.28; 95%CI: 0.94; 1.75) in the high, middle, and low occupational social classes, respectively. We found an inverse effect of the occupational social class on the association between sex and type 2 diabetes on the multiplicative scale, suggesting that it acts as an effect modifier.

Social structure and integration: Occupational classes and integration mechanisms between 2015 and 2021

The topic of the paper is the relationship between social stratification based on occupational classes and the mechanisms of social integration, which was analysed on quantitative data collected in 2015, 2018 and 2021. We sought answers to how we can better understand the interaction of social and integration positions, as well as the functioning of complex integration mechanisms. In the examined six years, a definite homogenization took place in the integration indicators of the occupational groups: this means that indicators measured of occupational group in some integration dimensions took on closer values. It is also part of our research results that there is an interpretable correlation between the hierarchy of occupational groups and the examined integration mechanisms: political participation, number of weak ties, subjective social exclusion and acceptance of norm violation. The upper strata of the occupational class model (mostly entrepreneurs, managers, professionals and other white-collar workers) have consistently reported higher numbers of weak ties, lower sense of exclusion and higher political participation. We also found consistent, yet opposite results in the lower strata, mostly among the unemployed and those with unskilled and semi-skilled work linked to lower qualifications. The strengthening of homogenization and the impact of the hierarchy of occupational groups are simultaneous integrational characteristics of Hungarian society. The future research question is whether homogenization rearranges the integration effect of the occupational hierarchy.

Prevalence, pattern and factors associated with undernutrition among Primary school aged children in Rivers State Nigeria

Background: Undernutrition among children contributes to the high diseases burden in Nigeria and other developing countries undergoing nutritional transition. It presents as underweight, stunting and thinness/wasting. 
 Objective: This study looked at the pattern of undernutrition among primary school aged children in Rivers State.
 Materials and Methods: This is a cross-sectional descriptive study among primary school-aged children in Rivers State Nigeria recruited through a multistage sampling method. Information on socio-demography, dietary habit and physical activity of the pupils were obtained from parents who gave informed consent while weight and height measurements were carried out directly on assenting pupils. Data was analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics version 23 and WHO Anthroplus software. Results were presented in frequency table. Test of statistical significance was done at P < 0.05
 Results: A total of 465 pupils aged 5 – 13 years participated in the study. Mean age was 8.64 ± 0.113 years. Twenty-nine (6.2%) of the pupils were stunted, 8 (1.7%) were severely stunted; 19 (4.1%) were thin/wasted and 18 (3.9%) were severely thin/wasted; 12 (3.1%) were under-weight and 4 (1.0%) were severely underweight. Stunting and underweight were associated with type of school, place of residence, class of pupils, occupation and level of education of parents (P < 0.05); thinness/wasting was associated with only birth order (P < 0.05). Undernutrition was not associated with physical activity and dietary habit. 
 Conclusion: Stunting was the commonest pattern of undernutrition among primary school age children in Rivers State Nigeria followed by underweight and thinness/wasting.

Religion and Child Death in Ireland’s Industrial Capital: Belfast 1911

AbstractIreland is often seen as an outlier within the western world in terms of demographic behavior. As a society it has also been noted for its religious fervor, including religious division, at least until fairly recently. Might there be connections historically between these two spheres? One intriguing area of enquiry relates to possible links between religious denomination and child mortality. We explore this possibility using individual-level data from the household schedules of the Irish Census of 1911. The study area is Belfast, Ireland’s leading industrial city, which allows for a wide range of occupational and social class differences. Combining regression techniques and the mortality index proposed by Preston and Haines (1991), we seek to tease out the relationship between child mortality and religious affiliation while controlling for a range of other explanatory variables. We show that religious identity is clearly associated with different infant and child mortality outcomes. Of the three major religious denominations, Catholics suffered the most from high infant mortality, Church of Ireland (Anglican) families were only a little better off, while the largest Protestant denomination, the Presbyterians, had the best infant mortality outcomes. These differences were related, in the main, to the varying socioeconomic composition of the three major religious denominations but religious affiliation also mattered in its own right.

Intergenerational Social Mobility among Scheduled Caste Families in Haryana

To explore the intergenerational social mobility among scheduled caste families in Hisar district of Haryana state, the study was conducted in the year 2020 with 200 respondents. The results revealed that there has been a significant improvement in the educational qualifications of subsequent generations. Similarly, the occupation distribution of successive generations showed a decreasing proportion of individuals engaged in farm labour and livestock, while an increasing proportion of individuals engaged in non-farm labor, private service, and business. There is a shift in the occupational class distribution of consecutive generations. A strong and positive correlation was found between occupational mobility and factors such as family size, family income, and livelihood status. On the other hand, educational mobility was positively correlated with family size, family income, education status, and information source utilization, but negatively correlated with age. Additionally, social mobility is negatively correlated with livelihood status.

The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on catastrophic health expenditure in Greece

<abstract> <p>The measures implemented to combat the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) adversely affected both the Greek health system and the Greek population. This study aimed to investigate the influence of these measures on the catastrophic health expenditure (CHE) in Greece. The study used data from the household budget surveys (HBSs) of 2019, 2020 and 2021. Two-stage area sampling was applied in all three surveys, with stratification by geographic region and by degree of urbanization, and with samples of n<sub>2019</sub> = 6180, n<sub>2020</sub> = 6256 and n<sub>2021</sub> = 6053. The analysis was based on the fit of two logistic regression models; the incidence of the CHE at the 10% and 25% thresholds was used as outcome variables. The increase in the incidence of the CHE at the 10% threshold during the pandemic was mainly due to the disruption of healthcare delivery, the increase in out-of-pocket (OOP) payments, income losses and the uneven distribution of healthcare resources across the country. Several occupational classes reported a higher CHE than manual workers. Moreover, the deterioration in health was found to contribute to the increase in the incidence of the CHE, while household size protected against the CHE. The latter was also true for the 25% threshold. The results indicated that the pandemic and the associated confinement measures negatively influenced the CHE in Greece.</p> </abstract>

Вплив ерготерапії на показники сенсорного профілю дітей з розладами аутистичного спектра

The purpose of the study is to assess the effectiveness of occupational therapy on the sensory integration indicators of children with autism spectrum disorders in early childhood. Materials and methods. 60 patients (from 3 to 5 years old), who received rehabilitation measures for 6 months, participated in the study. In the control group, children received a standard corrective program. Children of the main group 1 additionally went through occupational therapy sessions, which were addressed to developing self-care skills. In the main group 2, in addition to the main group 1 therapy, children received sensory integration therapy (imitation abilities, orientation in space, coordination, sensory perception, changing the sensory environment). The study used a short sensory profile. Evaluation was carried out by occupational therapists before the start of the intervention and after completion of the program. Results and discussion. Comparison of the three groups according to the initial results of the total sensory profile score did not establish statistical differences between the groups (χ²=2.594; p=0.273). The initial indicators of х̅ ± SD of the total score in the control group were 88.4 ± 4.11 points, in the main group 1 – 91.45 ± 7.12 points, and in the main group 2 – 89.7 ± 7.83 points. Comparison of the three groups according to the final results of the total sensory profile score established statistical differences (F=604.805; p<0.001). х̅ ± SD indicators in the control group were 100.5 ± 4.56 points, in the main group 1 – 158 ± 6.61 points, and in the main group 2 – 165 ± 7.73 points. A conducted posteriori test established the presence of statistical differences between the control group and other groups (p<0.001), between the main group 1 and the main group 2 (p<0.01). It should be noted that the increase in х̅ in the control group was 12.1 points, in the main group 1 – 66.55 points, and in the main group 2 – 75.3 points, which was 13.69%, 72.77% and 83.95% of the initial values, respectively in groups. Conclusion. The addition of occupational therapy sessions to a standard remedial program improved the effectiveness of the intervention on all item scores and the Short Sensory Profile total score. However, adding occupational therapy classes and sensory integration therapy to the standard correctional program had the best effect on sensory integrative indicators. The results obtained by us are a consequence of the fact that in the control group the changes were less shown than in other groups, and in the main group 2 they were the most shown. At the same time, in the main group 1 and main group 2, the comparison of the final and initial results established statistical changes in all points of the sensory profile

CARING FOR CHILDREN WITH DISABILITIES, WORKING, AND SAVING FOR RETIREMENT OVER THE LIFE COURSE

Abstract In the US, financial security in retirement depends on having savings and other assets accumulated during the pre-retirement years. Pension savings accrue over the working life, in defined-benefit or defined-contribution retirement plans. Mothers with children with disabilities experience different life-course work trajectories than mothers without children with disabilities, though data used in previous studies primarily examine a single point in time or a short span of years. This paper draws longitudinal data from the nationally-representative 1979 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth for the years 1987 through 2018, using a life-course perspective and sequence analysis to identify long-term work patterns among women with children who do and do not have disabilities with an explicit focus on variations in occupational class and employment status. We found a distinctive pattern of long-term work history with five types: Full-time semi-professional to not working, Constantly not working, Semi-professional full time, Professional full time, and Not working to full time work. Results from regression analyses revealed variation in mothers’ household financial preparation for retirement at late mid-adulthood. Compared with mothers who held professional full-time jobs throughout their adulthood, mothers who started full time jobs in middle age and have children with disabilities were less likely to have pension plans. Mothers of children with disabilities who left the labor force in early middle age tended to have lower retirement savings. Policy interventions to address these mothers’ caregiving ability to stay engaged in the workforce and prepare for their retirement need to be explored.

Stratification of poverty risk: The importance of social class in four European countries

Social class structures life chances and exposure to socioeconomic risk, but the extent to which this is still the case is subject to debate. While some assert a relevant middle-class squeeze and consequent polarisation, others argue for the disappearance of social class and a ‘democratisation’ of social and economic risk for all segments of postmodern society. We focused on relative poverty to interrogate the extent to which occupational class still matters and whether traditionally ‘safe’ middle-class occupations have lost their capacity for sheltering people from socioeconomic risk. The class-based stratification of poverty risk suggests pronounced structural inequalities between social groups, given its consequences in terms of deprived living standards and the reproduction of disadvantage. We used the longitudinal component of EU-SILC data (2004–2015) to analyse four European countries: Italy, Spain, France and the United Kingdom. We developed logistic models of poverty risk and compared class-specific average marginal effects obtained under a seemingly unrelated estimation framework. We documented persistence of class-based stratification of poverty risk with some indication of polarisation. Over time, upper-class occupations preserved their secure position, middle-class occupations showed a slight increase in poverty risk and working-classes showed the greatest increase in poverty risk. Contextual heterogeneity exists mainly in the levels while patterns are relatively similar. The particularly high-risk exposure of less advantaged classes in Southern Europe can be attributed to the prevalence of single earner households.