Observed Gender Differences Research Articles

Success in Graduate School and After: Survey Results from the Midwest Region, Part III

Ph.D.-granting institutions want students to complete their doctoral degrees. Most graduate departments in political science focus their training on preparing students to pursue academic careers. We provide valid and reliable empirical data about the factors that affect students' prospects for successfully completing political science doctoral degrees and finding academic jobs. Because National Science Foundation data (2002, Table 53) reveal significant differences in the number of doctoral degrees awarded to women compared with men, we test a series of hypotheses based on the existing literature that may account for these differences. Our paper applies knowledge gained from previous studies, such as in the area of mentoring (Wasby 2001; Andersen 2001; Benesh 2001), to explain observed gender differences in doctoral degree completion and success in gaining academic employment thereafter. The research was commissioned and funded by the Executive Council of the Midwest Political Science Association; additional funding was provided by the department of political science at the University of Iowa. Barbara Burrell of Northern Illinois University oversaw the data collection for round two of the panel study. Kimberly M. Lewis of the University of Iowa provided research assistance.

The reactivity to CK5/6 antibody in tumor cells from non-small cell lung cancers shed into pleural effusions predicts survival

Lung cancer, especially adenocarcinoma and large cell carcinoma, tends to spread to the pleural cavities. Once an effusion develops, the prognosis is generally dismal. Immunocytochemistry is frequently applied to effusions for diagnostic purposes, but the prognostic value of markers in malignant effusions have thus far attracted less attention. Dakopatts CK 5/6 antibody was applied to ethanol-fixed fresh cytospin preparations from malignant pleural effusions originating from 18 patients (11 men and 7 women) with a previously or later verified non-small cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC). In three cases, CK5/6 reactivity was found in part of the malignant population, whereas 10 cases showed reactivity in most tumor cells. The lack of reactivity in malignant cells was only seen in five effusions. Females showed significantly lower reactivity rates, with all negative effusions coming from female patients, whereas 9/10 effusions with reactivity in most malignant cells originated from males. CK5/6 reactivity was significantly correlated to survival, with a median survival time of 18 days for patients with CK5/6-negative tumors, and 212 days for those with positive tumors. The strong relationship between CK5/6 reactivity and survival, and the observed gender difference, warrants larger studies aimed at the clinical utility of CK5/6 as a prognostic marker in metastatic NSCLC, the possible functional role of CK5/6 in cell adhesion in advanced NSCLC and its possible hormonal control.

Skipping breakfast: gender effects on resting heart rate measures in preadolescents

The cardiovascular response in children to morning nutrition has received little attention, and associated gender-related effects are virtually uninvestigated. This study evaluated resting heart-rate (HR) and heart-rate variability (HRV) in preadolescents after overnight fasting and again after eating a standardized breakfast or continuing to fast. For both sexes HR increased slightly after eating and decreased significantly with continued fasting (p<.01). Relative to children who ate, those who continued fasting showed increases in HRV—particularly for inter-beat-interval and low frequency component (LF: 0.04–0.15Hz) measures. There were significant increases across variability measures for fasting children (p<.01), but a selective LF decrease in those who were fed—an effect most prominent in females. Otherwise, males and females showed similar treatment-related changes in HRV. While within-gender comparisons showed similar HR results, i.e., faster HR in fed compared with fasting children, fasting females—but not males—showed significantly greater increases in variability relative to females who were fed (p<.05). The observed gender differences appear to result from greater parasympathetic activity in males and an apparent emphasis on parasympathetic regulation of LF variability. Together, these findings suggest that extended overnight fasting initiates an increase in parasympathetic activity that attenuates the expected increase in cardiovascular output following a mid-morning meal. Supported by USDA CRIS 6251-51000-002-03S

Can gender differences in psychosocial factors be explained by socioeconomic status?

The aims of this study were to examine (1) if associations between gender and psychosocial factors could be explained by socioeconomic status (SES) and (2) if associations between gender and psychosocial factors are more salient at lower levels of SES. Psychosocial factors such as decision latitude and social integration were studied in a cross-sectional study in two steps. In a public health survey, 4,086 randomly selected men and women aged 30-64 participated. Of these, 257 men and women also participated in an in-depth study. SES was measured in terms of education and occupation. Linear regression models were used to test associations between gender, SES, and a broad range of psychosocial factors. Women reported lower scale scores on decision latitude, coping, and self-esteem, as well as more job strain, depression, and vital exhaustion, while men reported more cynicism (all p<0.05). Observed gender differences were still significant after control for effect of education, while after control for occupational status the effect of gender was lost for decision latitude and job strain. Significant interaction factors were found between gender and educational status for psychological demands, decision latitude, social integration, coping, and hopelessness. Gender differences, found for a broad range of psychosocial factors, could not be explained by SES. However, associations between gender and psychosocial factors were more salient at lower levels of SES. Psychosocial factors, especially decision latitude and social integration, may help explain why women with low SES experience poorer health.

Gender Differences in Stroke Care Decision-Making

Women are less likely than men to receive some stroke care interventions. It is not known whether gender differences in patient preferences explain some of the observed variations in stroke care delivery. Outpatients with and without a history of cerebrovascular disease were recruited from stroke, vascular, and general internal medicine ambulatory clinics between September 2002 and October 2003. Self-administered surveys described hypothetical scenarios, and participants were asked if they would accept therapy with thrombolysis for acute ischemic stroke or carotid endarterectomy for secondary stroke prevention. The surveys also included questions on sociodemographic factors and decision-making preferences. A total of 586 patients (45% women) completed the survey. Women were less likely than men to accept thrombolysis (79% vs. 86%, P=0.014), even after adjustment for other factors (adjusted odds ratio [OR] 0.58, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.37-0.92). Women and men were equally likely to accept carotid endarterectomy (82% vs. 84%, P=0.502), even after adjustment for other factors (adjusted OR 0.94, 95% CI 0.58- 1.53). Women were less confident in their decisions, were more risk averse, and would have preferred more information to assist them in their decision-making. No gender differences were found in patient preferences for carotid surgery. However, we observed gender differences in patient preferences for thrombolysis and in general attitudes toward stroke care decision-making. Health care providers should be aware that, compared with men, women may be more concerned about risks and may require more information before they make a decision.

Pharmacokinetics (PK) of S/D treated anti-D immunoglobulin after intramuscular injection in healthy volunteers: gender differences in PK

The aim of this study was to investigate the pharmacokinetic profile of the new solvent/detergent (S/D) formulation of an anti-D IgG preparation, and to evaluate gender differences. RhD-negative subjects (m/f = 10/8) received a single i.m. injection of 250 μg anti-D (Partobulin SDF). There was a rapid increase in median anti-D titers over the first 2 days, followed by a plateau from days 2–7. Interestingly, women had a higher maximum concentration ( C max) of anti-D and a lower volume of distribution at steady state ( V ss) than men. The half-life calculated in this study was 23 days. Thus, results are comparable to published data of the non-S/D treated predecessor product. Because of the observed gender differences in the pharmacokinetics we recommend to pursue the evaluation of sex differences in the pharmacokinetics of other antibodies during early phase drug development.

How to explain gender differences in fear of crime: Towards an evolutionary approach

Employing data from a sample of 610 Dutch high school students and their parents, this article argues in favour of an evolutionary explanation for the fact that women are more fearful of crime than men while they are less often victimized. With respect to a variety of events that involved physical injury, varying from robbery to being involved in a car accident, female respondents were, compared to male respondents, more fearful of every event, judged every single event to be more harmful, and consistently rated their own probability to experience these events in the future as higher. The findings suggest that fear of crime among women does not represent a real higher risk of being victimized, is not primarily linked to the risk of being raped, and is not an isolated phenomenon. Indeed, women seem in general more fearful of all kinds of events that might imply a physical injury. The observed gender differences were not influenced by the degree of traditionality of the family of the respondents as expressed in status differences between the parents, in the division of household tasks, and in having an intact family. The gender differences could neither be explained by a perceived norm that boys must be more risk taking than girls. It is concluded that the observed gender differences may be the result of sexual selection that favoured risk-taking and status fights among males, and being cautious and protecting one’s offspring among females.

Gender differences in sexual motivation

This article describes the ways in which arousal and sexual urges in women and men reflect sex differences in the links between brain responses and genital changes. Boys are more sexually motivated from puberty on, whereas girls tend to seek emotional connections as a precursor to sexual contact. Although feelings and thoughts are important for both sexes, women are not always psychologically aroused by genital vasocongestion, while the opposite tends to pertain to men. Lack of subjective arousal commonly leads to loss of sexual interest in women: negative emotions in the current relationship are often involved. For men, the causes of sexual withdrawal are more variable, and childhood family dynamics are a frequent, but unconscious, factor. The role of the neuropeptides oxytocin and vasopressin, synthesised from oestrogen and testosterone respectively, is described as a biological underpinning for some observed gender differences. Oxytocin is released at orgasm by both women and men and promotes sexual pleasure and emotional bonding. Vasopressin, secreted during the male arousal phase, is linked to men's drive for sexual expression. This peptide may have the opposite effect on women and impair arousal and motivation due to the link between vasopressin release and aggression. Psychological treatment needs to explore the meaning of lack of sexual motivation for each person, and to address individual and couple issues. An integrated psychosexual model combining behavioural and psychodynamic approaches can alter feelings and relational patterns, and facilitate the return of sexual desire between partners in a committed relationship.

A Neuroendocrinological Hypothesis on Gender Effects of Naltrexone in Relapse Prevention Treatment

The ability of naltrexone to increase hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA)-axis activity was recently reported to be associated with its effects on the reduction of craving for alcohol. We now present data showing naltrexone to be more efficacious in female alcoholics. Since HPA-axis might be interpreted as a key mechanism of action that could explain the observed gender differences in the abstinence maintenance treatment of alcohol addiction.

Solid pseudopapillary neoplasms of the pancreas: Is there a pathologic basis for the observed gender differences in incidence?

The fact that solid pseudopapillary neoplasms of the pancreas (SPNP) occur predominantly in young women suggests that genetic and/or gender-specific factors may play a role in the pathogenesis. Therefore, SPNP derived from male patients may exhibit different molecular or clinicopathologic characteristics compared to SPNP derived from female patients. We compared the immunohistologic staining patterns and presence of sex hormone receptors of SPNP obtained from 4 male and 11 female patients. In addition, we analyzed the clinical data from 285 (21 male and 264 female) previously reported patients with SPNP and our 15 patients. All 15 of the neoplasms were positive for progesterone, but negative for estrogen and androgen receptors. There were no immunohistologic differences between the genders. An analysis of all reported patients revealed no significant differences in patient age, size or location of the neoplasm, or malignancy rate. Although female patients with SPNP outnumbered male patients with SPNP, there were no gender-specific trends in expression of sex hormone receptor protein or clinicopathologic characteristics.

Role Of Testosterone In Regulation Of Substrate Use During Exercise

Men use proportionately more carbohydrate and less fat during submaximal exercise than women and circulating hormones appear to play a role in mediating this difference. We have shown that circulating estrogen and progesterone have potent and opposing effects on the regulation of substrate use during exercise in women, but the role of testosterone in mediating exercise substrate use in men is unknown. We tested the hypothesis that high concentrations of testosterone (T) would shift substrate use toward greater carbohydrate utilization. Nine healthy active men cycled at ∼60% of VO2peak for 90 min under 3 hormonal conditions: physiological T (no intervention), low T (pharmacological suppression of endogenous T with GnRH antagonist) and high T (supplementation with transdermal T). Total plasma testosterone was significantly different between physiological T, low T, and high T (mean±SEM, 5.5±0.4 ng/ml, 0.8±0.1, 10.9±1.0 (p < 0.0001), respectively). Despite the large change in plasma T, there were no differences in carbohydrate oxidation (27.1± 1.7 mg/kg/min, 25.5±2.0, 24.9±1.4 (p=0.68)) or lipid oxidation (5.1±0.7 mg/kg/min, 5.4±0.6, 5.9±0.4 (p=0.60)). Furthermore, blood glucose uptake (8.3±0.7 mg/kg/min, 8.2±0.7, 7.8±0.7 (p=0.88)) and estimated muscle glycogen utilization (18.8±1.6 mg/kg/min, 17.2±1.7, 17.1±1.1(p=0.66)), as measured using stable isotope dilution and indirect calorimetry, were not different between T conditions. In conclusion, circulating T does not alter carbohydrate oxidation or blood glucose uptake during submaximal exercise. These data indicate that circulating T does not play a direct role in the observed gender difference in submaximal exercise carbohydrate oxidation.

Role Of Testosterone In Regulation Of Substrate Use During Exercise

Men use proportionately more carbohydrate and less fat during submaximal exercise than women and circulating hormones appear to play a role in mediating this difference. We have shown that circulating estrogen and progesterone have potent and opposing effects on the regulation of substrate use during exercise in women, but the role of testosterone in mediating exercise substrate use in men is unknown. We tested the hypothesis that high concentrations of testosterone (T) would shift substrate use toward greater carbohydrate utilization. Nine healthy active men cycled at ∼60% of VO2peak for 90 min under 3 hormonal conditions: physiological T (no intervention), low T (pharmacological suppression of endogenous T with GnRH antagonist) and high T (supplementation with transdermal T). Total plasma testosterone was significantly different between physiological T, low T, and high T (mean±SEM, 5.5±0.4 ng/ml, 0.8±0.1, 10.9±1.0 (p < 0.0001), respectively). Despite the large change in plasma T, there were no differences in carbohydrate oxidation (27.1± 1.7 mg/kg/min, 25.5±2.0, 24.9±1.4 (p=0.68)) or lipid oxidation (5.1±0.7 mg/kg/min, 5.4±0.6, 5.9±0.4 (p=0.60)). Furthermore, blood glucose uptake (8.3±0.7 mg/kg/min, 8.2±0.7, 7.8±0.7 (p=0.88)) and estimated muscle glycogen utilization (18.8±1.6 mg/kg/min, 17.2±1.7, 17.1±1.1(p=0.66)), as measured using stable isotope dilution and indirect calorimetry, were not different between T conditions. In conclusion, circulating T does not alter carbohydrate oxidation or blood glucose uptake during submaximal exercise. These data indicate that circulating T does not play a direct role in the observed gender difference in submaximal exercise carbohydrate oxidation.

Observations on the management of acute pain crisis in adult sickle cell disease in eastern Saudi Arabia.

BACKGROUNDSickle cell pain crisis continues to challenge patients and health professionals in places like Saudi Arabia, where the disease is common, and use of narcotic analgesics is strictly controlled. We sought to find the most effective and appropriate pain control regime for adult sickle cell pain crisis in Saudi Arabian patients.PATIENTS AND METHODSAdult sickle cell disease patients in crisis, treated initially in the emergency room of a private health center, usually undergo further treatment with different pain control regimes in an observation ward. We compared the adequacy of pain conrol during the three recent years (2000–2002) with those of the preceding three (1995–1997).RESULTSTreatment with regular opiates supplemented with oral analgesics during the second three-year period produced better results than “on demand” regimes. The former regimen enabled about 83% of patients from the second three-year period to be discharged home within two days compared with 71% during the first three-year period (P<0.05). A minority of patients needed more time for pain resolution. Patient response to oral analgesics was variable and females appeared to fare better than males.DISCUSSIONGreater empathy and individualized treatment are required for sickle cell pain crisis patients because of their variable clinical presentation, response to medications, and the regularity of pain in their lives. The observed gender differences in pain response require further study.

Hippocampal shape analysis using medial surfaces

In magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) research, significant attention has been paid to the analysis of the hippocampus (HC) within the medial temporal lobe because of its importance in memory and learning, and its role in neurodegenerative diseases. Manual segmentation protocols have established a volume decline in the HC in conjunction with Alzheimer's disease, epilepsy, post-traumatic stress disorder, and depression. Furthermore, recent studies have investigated age-related changes of HC volume which show an interaction with gender; in early adulthood, volume reduction of the HC is found in men but not in women. In this paper, we investigated gender differences in normal subjects in young adulthood by employing a shape analysis of the HC using medial surfaces. For each subject, the most prominent medial manifold of the HC was extracted and flattened. The flattened sheets were then registered using both a rigid and a non-rigid alignment technique, and the medial surface radius was expressed as a height function over them. This allowed for an investigation of the association between subject variables and the local width of the HC. With regard to the effects of age and gender, it could be shown that the previously observed gender differences were mostly due to volume loss in males in the lateral areas of the HC head and tail. We suggest that the analysis of HC shape using medial surfaces might thus serve as a complimentary technique to investigate group differences to the established segmentation protocols for volume quantification in MRI.

Vulnerability to Mental Illnesses: Gender Makes a Difference, and So Does Providing Good Psychiatric Care

Vulnerability to Mental Illnesses: Gender Makes a Difference, and So Does Providing Good Psychiatric Care

Gender Differences and Cognition Among Older Adults

The more replicated findings about gender difference in cognitive performance suggest female superiority on visuomotor speed and language ability and male superiority on mechanical and visuospatial tasks. Generally, group strengths found in the early school years become more established at adolescence and remain stable through adulthood. The current study tested whether the patterns established in the early years remained among 30 adult subjects. We also utilized a series of exploratory analyses to determine if observed gender differences were impacted by the covariance present between all cognitive tests. Results suggest that although the patterns established in the early years remain stable through time for males, the established patterns for females are altered with age. Our findings are compelling in supporting a male advantage on visuospatial tasks among older adults. These findings are discussed in terms of common variance between test instruments as a possible source of difference. Our finding that the gender effect tended to increase when common variance was controlled argues that this methodology may enhance the ability to detect domain specific effects.

IGF‐I concentrations are positively associated with carotid artery atherosclerosis in women

BACKGROUND. Alterations in the growth hormone (GH)/insulin‐like growth factor I (IGF‐I) axis are associated with increased cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, but previous studies have yielded conflicting results. In addition, the T1169A polymorphism in the GH1 gene has been associated with IGF‐I levels.AIMS. To investigate whether IGF‐I concentrations and the T1169A polymorphism of the GH1 gene are associated with cardiovascular risk factors and the intima media thickness (IMT) of the carotid artery.METHODS. Fasting plasma IGF‐I concentrations (n = 1008) were measured in a large population‐based OPERA (Oulu Project Elucidating Risk of Atherosclerosis) cohort. Genotype variants were determined by the restriction fragment length polymorphism method.RESULTS. Low IGF‐I concentrations associated with several cardiovascular risk factors including age, adiposity, and high triglyceride, fasting insulin and C‐reactive protein concentrations in the analysis of all subjects. In the multivariate models, however, IGF‐I concentrations were positively associated with the mean IMT of women (ß = 0.127, P = 0.009) whereas the association in men was weaker and negative (ß = −0.088, P = 0.034). The 1169A allele was associated with low low‐density lipoprotein cholesterol in both sexes and with low systolic blood pressure levels in women.CONCLUSIONS. IGF‐I concentrations were associated with several traditional cardiovascular risk factors. The observed gender difference in the association between IGF‐I concentrations and carotid artery atherosclerosis warrants further study. The GH1 1169A allele may be associated with a favourable metabolic profile.

Diets and selected lifestyle practices of self-defined adult vegetarians from a population-based sample suggest they are more 'health conscious'

BackgroundFew population-based studies of vegetarians have been published. Thus we compared self-reported vegetarians to non-vegetarians in a representative sample of British Columbia (BC) adults, weighted to reflect the BC population.MethodsQuestionnaires, 24-hr recalls and anthropometric measures were completed during in-person interviews with 1817 community-dwelling residents, 19–84 years, recruited using a population-based health registry. Vegetarian status was self-defined. ANOVA with age as a covariate was used to analyze continuous variables, and chi-square was used for categorical variables. Supplement intakes were compared using the Mann-Whitney test.ResultsApproximately 6% (n = 106) stated that they were vegetarian, and most did not adhere rigidly to a flesh-free diet. Vegetarians were more likely female (71% vs. 49%), single, of low-income status, and tended to be younger. Female vegetarians had lower BMI than non-vegetarians (23.1 ± 0.7 (mean ± SE) vs. 25.7 ± 0.2 kg/m2), and also had lower waist circumference (75.0 ± 1.5 vs. 79.8 ± 0.5 cm). Male vegetarians and non-vegetarians had similar BMI (25.9 ± 0.8 vs. 26.7 ± 0.2 kg/m2) and waist circumference (92.5 ± 2.3 vs. 91.7 ± 0.4 cm). Female vegetarians were more physically active (69% vs. 42% active ≥4/wk) while male vegetarians were more likely to use nutritive supplements (71% vs. 51%). Energy intakes were similar, but vegetarians reported higher % energy as carbohydrate (56% vs. 50%), and lower % protein (men only; 13% vs. 17%) or % fat (women only; 27% vs. 33%). Vegetarians had higher fiber, magnesium and potassium intakes. For several other nutrients, differences by vegetarian status differed by gender. The prevalence of inadequate magnesium intake (% below Estimated Average Requirement) was lower in vegetarians than non-vegetarians (15% vs. 34%). Female vegetarians also had a lower prevalence of inadequate thiamin, folate, vitamin B6 and C intakes. Vegetarians were more likely than non-vegetarians to consider various health conditions and food/nutrition concerns when choosing foods.ConclusionIn this population-based study, evidence was obtained to indicate that vegetarians appear more 'health conscious' than non-vegetarians, although specific differences were not always consistent by gender. Additional population-based studies are required to determine if the observed gender differences exist in other populations.

Reduced glucocorticoid and estrogen receptor alpha messenger ribonucleic acid levels in the amygdala of patients with major mental illness

The amygdala is a limbic structure involved in the stress response and the regulation of emotional behaviors, both of which are disrupted in patients with neuropsychiatric illnesses. Because glucocorticoids are mediators of the stress response, we hypothesized that glucocorticoid receptor (GR) messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) levels might be altered in the amygdala. We also hypothesized that estrogen receptor alpha (ERalpha) mRNA expression might be altered in the amygdala, on the basis of observed gender differences in mental illness. Using quantitative film autoradiography after in situ hybridization with human GR and ERalpha probes, we measured mRNA levels on adjacent amygdala sections in four groups (n = 15 each of subjects with schizophrenia, major depressive disorder, and bipolar disorder, and unaffected control subjects) provided by the Stanley Consortium. We detected main effects of diagnosis and exposure to antidepressant medication on the levels of both mRNAs but no main effect of gender. Compared with control subjects, GR mRNA expression was reduced in the basolateral/lateral nuclei in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Estrogen receptor alpha mRNA levels were reduced in the basomedial nucleus in major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder. Our results support and extend previous findings describing a pattern of steroid hormone mRNA alterations that differs depending on which brain region is being examined in a given mental illness.

The human brain's algorithm for extrapolating motion, and its possible gender-dependence

Some athletes accomplish feats requiring a timing accuracy 100 times better than their reaction time. This capability implies that the brain can accurately extrapolate the motion of objects. We hypothesize that the brain uses a simple algorithm to accomplish this extrapolation, and that the algorithm is influenced by the subject's gender and recent observations of motion. We describe an experiment in timing the motion of a dot across a computer screen designed to discover the motion extrapolation algorithm. Different types of motion of the dot were studied. The experiment was conducted with 126 college students (two-thirds female), who each performed 1000 trials. By using as many as 126,000 trials, the random noise inherent in individual trials averages out, allowing the underlying algorithm to be revealed. The results show that motion extrapolation is done using the average velocity of a moving object with no correction for changes in velocity during the motion, but with an ad hoc adjustment based on recently observed motions and on gender—males having on average a smaller error than females. A future controlled experiment will be needed to establish whether the observed gender difference is due to the greater experience of males with such related tasks as video games and sports.