Observed Gender Differences Research Articles

Why does the Great Chinese Famine affect the male and female survivors differently? Mortality selection versus son preference

Evidence shows that exposure to nutritional adversity in early life has larger long-term impacts on women than on men. Consistent with these findings, our paper shows a higher incidence of disability and illiteracy among female survivors of the Great Chinese Famine (1959–1961). Moreover we find that the better health of male survivors most plausibly reflects higher male excess mortality during the famine, whereas the observed gender difference in illiteracy rate is probably better explained by the culture of son preference.

P.1.g.001 A prospective investigation of postconcussional symptoms after mild traumatic brain injury

The authors sought to define the relationship between gender and postconcussion symptoms (PCSx) at 3 months after sport-related mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) and, further, to examine whether age (minors vs. adults), source of PCSx reporting (self-reported vs. proxy), previous head injury or loss of consciousness, or the sport type in which the mTBI was incurred explain any observed gender differences in PCSx.Prospective nested cohort study.Regional trauma center emergency department.A total of 260 patients who presented with sport-related mTBI, as defined by American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine criteria, began the study. The participants who lacked litigation concerning the mTBI and had participated in the follow-up assessment completed the study (n = 215).Self, proxy, and interviewer report of age, gender, previous head injury or loss of consciousness, and sport in which injury was sustained.Rivermead Post Concussion Symptoms Questionnaire (RPQ).Adult females are at greater risk for elevated RPQ scores (odds ratio [OR] = 2.89, 95% confidence interval [95% CI] = 1.25-6.71; P = .013) but not female minors (OR = 0.87, 95% CI = 0.45-1.71]; P = .695), as compared with male subjects. Adjustment for empirically identified confounders in each age group revealed persisting elevated risk for adult females (OR = 2.57, 95% CI = 1.09-6.08; P = .031), but not minor females (OR = 1.07, 95% CI = 0.52-2.19, P = .852). The risk associated with female gender in adults could not be explained by characteristics of the sports, such as helmeted versus not, or contact versus no contact, in which women incurred mTBIs. No sport characteristics were associated with increased risk of PCSx after mTBI.Adult females, but not female minors, are at increased risk for PCSx after sport-related mTBI as compared with male patients. This increased risk cannot be explained by self-report, rather than proxy report, of symptoms, previous head injury or loss of consciousness, age, or sport characteristics. Further research is needed to elucidate the processes of age-differential recovery from mild brain injury in women and on how to most effectively incorporate appropriate follow-up after emergency department evaluation.

Combining automatic item generation and experimental designs to investigate the contribution of cognitive components to the gender difference in mental rotation

Marked gender differences in three-dimensional mental rotation have been broadly reported in the literature in the last few decades. Various theoretical models and accounts were used to explain the observed differences. Within the framework of linking item design features of mental rotation tasks to cognitive component processes associated with them we combined automatic item generation, (quasi-)experimental research designs and think aloud protocols to test several hypotheses: in study 1 the main focus was on gender differences regarding (1) encoding- and mental transformation strategies and (2) the ability to maintain a stable mental representation while transforming it. The results indicated that females are more prone to either lose track or to lose their internal mental representations during transformation process. Furthermore, they also tended to use more error-prone mental transformation strategies. The second study focused on the evaluation of the hypotheses that the observed gender difference can be accounted for by individual differences in the ability to extract the depth information conveyed in the illustrations of the object. Based on previous studies we gradually manipulated the salience of depth cues in a psychometric experiment. The results partially confirmed our initial hypotheses: depending on the degree of salience of the depth information females either benefitted more, or to an equal extent than males from our experimental manipulations. The implications of the results of both studies are discussed.

The estrogen paradox in pulmonary arterial hypertension

Idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is a disabling condition characterized by PA vasoconstriction and remodeling as well as in situ thrombosis and eventual right heart failure. Idiopathic PAH occurs more frequently in females than in males. The female:male ratio is 1.64 ∼ 3.88:1. Although endogenous sex hormones including estrogen have been suggested to account for the observed gender differences in PAH, a precise pathobiology for the gender differences remains uncertain. Recent studies demonstrated that estrogen exerts beneficial effects on the pulmonary vasculature. However, it seems to contradict the female predominance that is observed in idiopathic PAH. Moreover, Sweeney and Voelkel (Sweeney L and Voelkel NF. Eur J Med Res 14: 433-442, 2009) showed that early and long-term estrogen exposure might be correlated with an increased risk of the development of PAH. Here we ask the question: Is estrogen a friend or a foe? According to accumulating evidence, we postulate that the different effects of estrogens on different target cells could account for this paradox, i.e., estrogens may exert beneficial effects only on the increased muscularization of vessel walls, but not on phenotypically altered endothelial cells. The effects of estrogens on the pulmonary vasculature are potent and complex, yet not fully understood. A better mechanistic understanding may allow for future therapeutic interventions in patients with PAH.

Ecstasy use among US adolescents from 1999 to 2008

Aims To investigate trends in rates of ecstasy use among US adolescents from 1999 to 2008, and to examine the associations between the major sociodemographic factors, especially gender, and ecstasy use, during this period. Methods The adolescent subsamples (age 12–17) from 1999 to 2008 NHSDA/NSDUH surveys were used for the current study. Data from adolescents’ self-reports on use of ecstasy and of other drugs, as well as sociodemographic characteristics, were used in the analyses. Results There was an increasing trend in adolescent ecstasy use from 1999 to 2002, which was followed by a decreasing trend from 2002 to 2005, and a slight rise from 2005 to 2008. In contrast to some other drugs, ecstasy was more likely to be used by girls than by boys. This gender difference persisted over the 10-year period and could not be explained by other demographic factors. Conclusion Given the known health consequences of ecstasy use, especially for females, the observed gender difference in adolescent ecstasy use should be taken into account by drug prevention and intervention programs.

Gender differences in relationships between urban green space and health in the United Kingdom

Natural environments, or 'green spaces', have been associated with a wide range of health benefits. Gender differences in neighbourhood effects on health have been found in a number of studies, although these have not been explored in relation to green space. We conducted the first UK-wide study of the relationship between urban green space and health, and the first such study to investigate gender differences in this relationship. An ecological approach was used. Two land use datasets were used to create a proportional green space measure (% by area) at the UK Census Area Statistic ward scale. Our sample consisted of 6432 urban wards, with a total population of 28.6 million adults aged 16-64 years in 2001. We selected health outcomes that were plausibly related to green space (cardiovascular disease mortality, respiratory disease mortality and self-reported limiting long-term illness) and another that was expected to be unrelated (lung cancer mortality). Negative binomial regression models examined associations between urban green space and these health outcomes, after controlling for relevant confounders. Gender differences in these associations were observed and tested. Male cardiovascular disease and respiratory disease mortality rates decreased with increasing green space, but no significant associations were found for women. No protective associations were observed between green space and lung cancer mortality or self-reported limiting long-term illness for either men or women. Possible explanations for the observed gender differences in the green space and health relationship are gender differences in perceptions and usage of urban green spaces. We conclude that it is important not to assume uniform health benefits of urban green space for all population subgroups. Additionally, urban green space measures that capture quality as well as quantity could be more suited to studying green space and health relationships for women.

Risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder following an industrial disaster in a residential area: A note on the origin of observed gender differences

Studies indicate that differences in trait anxiety and trauma-related distress may mediate the gender differences observed in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). We examined the contributions of gender, trait anxiety, and trauma-related distress to the development of PTSD after an industrial disaster. Three months after a massive explosion in a fireworks factory in Kolding, Denmark, in November 2004, residents in the surrounding area were asked to complete the Harvard Trauma Questionnaire, the General Health Questionnaire, and a questionaire designed for the present study. Using multivariable logistic regression with PTSD as the dependent variable, we examined 4 explanatory models: (1) gender; (2) gender and trait anxiety; (3) gender, trait anxiety, and perceived danger; and (4) gender, trait anxiety, perceived danger, perceived hostility, feeling isolated, depersonalization, and behavioral self-blame. Fifty-one percent (N = 516; 265 women and 251 men) of the area residents participated in the study. The female-to-male ratio of PTSD was 2.4:1. Women experienced significantly more trait anxiety (P < 0.001), feelings of isolation (P < 0.005), and behavioral self-blame (P = 0.018), and less perceived danger (P = 0.034) than did men. In multivariable logistic regression analysis, gender alone predicted 3.7% of the variance in PTSD status (odds ratio [OR] = 2.40; 95% CI, 1.35-4.27; P < 0.005); however, in all other models, gender was not significant. The final model comprised trait anxiety (OR = 1.20; 95% CI, 1.11-1.30; P < 0.001), perceived danger (OR = 4.62; 95% Cl, 2.24-9.50; P < 0.001), perceived hostility (OR = 5.21; 95% CI, 1.93-14.09; P < 0.001), feeling isolated (OR = 3.34; 95% CI, 1.55-7.16; P < 0.002), depersonalization (OR = 2.49; 95% CI, 1.42-4.37; P < 0.001), and behavioral self-blame (OR = 0.46; 95% CI, 0.24-0.86; P = 0.015), explaining 48.9% of the variance in PTSD severity. This cross-sectional study found that gender was no longer associated with PTSD status when trait anxiety, perceived danger and hostility, feeling isolated, depersonalization, and behavioral self-blame were taken into account.

Persistent organochlorine pesticides in serum and risk of Parkinson disease

Pesticides have been implicated as likely environmental risk factors for Parkinson disease (PD), but assessment of past exposure to pesticides can be difficult. No prior studies of pesticide exposure and PD used biomarkers of exposure collected before the onset of PD. Our investigation examined the association between prospective serum biomarkers of organochlorine pesticides and PD. We conducted a nested case-control study within the Finnish Mobile Clinic Health Examination Survey, with serum samples collected during 1968-1972, and analyzed in 2005-2007 for organochlorine pesticides. Incident PD cases were identified through the Social Insurance Institution's nationwide registry and were confirmed by review of medical records (n = 101). Controls (n = 349) were matched for age, sex, municipality, and vital status. Adjusted odds ratios (ORs) of PD were estimated using logistic regression. Little association emerged with a summary score of the 5 organochlorine pesticides found at high levels, and only increasing dieldrin concentrations trended toward a higher risk of PD (OR per interquartile range [IQR] 1.28, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.97-1.69, p = 0.08). Because of possible strong confounding by cigarette smoking among smokers, we ran additional analyses restricted to never smokers (n = 68 cases, 183 controls). In these analyses, increasing dieldrin concentrations were associated with increased odds of PD (OR per IQR 1.95, 95% CI 1.26-3.02, p = 0.003). None of the other organochlorine pesticides were associated with PD in these analyses. These results provide some support for an increased risk of Parkinson disease with exposure to dieldrin, but chance or exposure correlation with other less persistent pesticides could contribute to our findings.

Sleep Deprivation and Emotion Recognition

Sleep Deprivation and Emotion Recognition

Cognitive emotion regulation strategies: Gender differences and associations to worry

Research generally supports differences in the prevalence of GAD and reports of excessive worry between men and women. Psychosocial theories espouse individual vulnerability factors as correlates of anxiety and in turn related to gender differences. Emotion regulation is one vulnerability factor that has shown involvement in the development, exacerbation, and/or maintenance of anxiety, although there is insufficient evidence of this direct contribution to observed gender differences in anxiety. Using a sample of 1080 young adults, the current study examines the differential use of cognitive emotion regulation strategies between males and females and the subsequent effect on worry. Results of the present study provide tentative support for differential cognitive emotion regulation strategies between gender as a vulnerability to increased worry and potentially GAD. Specifically, males and females significantly differed in the endorsement of use of rumination, putting problems into perspective and blaming others as cognitive emotion regulation strategies.

Greater growth hormone and insulin response in women than in men during repeated bouts of sprint exercise

In a previous study, sprint training has been shown to increase muscle cross-sectional area in women but not in men [Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 74 (1996) 375]. We hypothesized that sprint exercise induces a different hormonal response in women than in men. Such a difference may contribute to explaining the observed gender difference in training response. Metabolic and hormonal response to three 30-s sprints with 20-min rest between the sprints was studied in 18 physically active men and women. Accumulation of blood lactate [interaction term gender (g) x time (t): P = 0.022], and plasma ammonia (g x t: P < 0.001) after sprint exercise was greater in men. Serum insulin increased after sprint exercise more so in women than in men (g x t: P = 0.020), while plasma glucose increased in men, but not in women (g x t: P < 0.001). Serum growth hormone (GH) increased in both women and men reaching similar peak levels, but with different time courses. In women the peak serum GH level was observed after sprint 1, whereas in men the peak was observed after sprint 3 (g x t; P < 0.001). Serum testosterone tended to decrease in men and increase in women (g x t: P = 0.065). Serum cortisol increased approx. 10-15% after sprint exercise, independent of gender (time: P = 0.005). Women elicited a greater response of serum GH and insulin to sprint exercise. This may contribute to explaining the earlier observed muscle hypertrophy in women in response to sprint training.

Cytogenetic perspective of ageing and longevity in men and women

Analysis of relationships between the ageing cell phenotype and the age of cell donors is one of the ways towards understanding the link between cellular and organismal ageing. Cytogenetically, ageing is associated with a number of gross cellular changes, including altered size and morphology, genomic instability, and changes in expression and proliferation. Genomic instability can be easily assessed by analyzing the level of cytogenetic aberrations. In this review, we focus on the differences in the level and profile of cytogenetic aberrations observed in donors of different age and gender. Centenarians are a small fraction of the population at the extreme of human longevity. Their inclusion in such studies may shed light on one of the basic questions: whether genome stability is better maintained in successfully aged individuals compared to the rest of the population. At the same time, comparing the profile of age-related amount of chromosomal aberrations in men and women may help explaining the commonly observed gender differences in longevity.

Monoallelic expression of MAO-A in skin fibroblasts

X chromosome inactivation in mammalian females occurs early in embryonic development and renders most genes on the inactive X chromosome transcriptionally silenced. As a consequence, females will display an X chromosomal parent-of-origin mosaicism with regard to which parental allele that is expressed. Some genes however, escape inactivation and will therefore be expressed from both alleles. In this study we have investigated if the X-linked MAO-A gene have bi- or mono-allelic expression. This information would indicate whether or not MAO-A gene dosage could potentially explain the observed gender differences that show functional connections to the serotonin system, such as aggression and impulsiveness. To investigate the X inactivation status of MAO-A we have used primary clonal cell cultures, on which allelic expression was assessed with RFLP analysis. Our results show that the MAO-A gene has mono-allelic expression in these cells. This could have important implications for understanding traits that display gender differences.

Serum markers of apoptosis decrease with age and cancer stage

The physical manifestations of aging reflect a loss of homeostasis that effects molecular, cellular and organ system functional capacity. As a sentinel homeostatic pathway, changes in apoptosis can have pathophysiological consequences in both aging and disease. To assess baseline global apoptosis balance, sera from 204 clinically normal subjects had levels of sFas (inhibitor of apoptosis), sFasL (stimulator of apoptosis), and total cytochrome c (released from cells during apoptosis) measured. Serum levels of sFas were significantly higher while sFasL and cytochrome c levels were lower in men compared to women. With increasing age there was a decrease in apoptotic markers (cytochrome c) and pro-apoptotic factors (sFasL) and an increase in anti-apoptotic factors (sFas) in circulation. The observed gender differences are consistent with the known differences between genders in mortality and morbidity. In a separate cohort, subjects with either breast (n = 66) or prostate cancer (n = 38) exhibited significantly elevated sFas with reduced sFasL and total cytochrome c regardless of age. These markers correlated with disease severity consistent with tumor subversion of apoptosis. The shift toward less global apoptosis with increasing age in normal subjects is consistent with increased incidence of diseases whose pathophysiology involves apoptosis dysregulation.

A prospective study examining the effects of gender and sexual/physical abuse on mood outcomes in patients with co‐occurring bipolar I and substance use disorders

Prior research suggests possible gender differences in the longitudinal course of bipolar disorder. This study prospectively examined gender differences in mood outcomes and tested the effects of sexual/physical abuse and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Participants (49 men, 41 women) with co-occurring bipolar I and substance use disorders (92% alcohol, 42% drug) were enrolled in a group treatment trial. They were followed for eight months, with monthly assessments, yielding 32 weeks of data. Primary outcome measures were number of weeks in each mood state, recurrences of depression or mania, and polarity shifts from depression to mania or vice versa. Negative binomial regression was used to examine the effects of gender, lifetime abuse, and PTSD on these outcomes. Participants met syndromal criteria for a mood episode on a mean of 27% of 32 weeks, with depression occurring most frequently. Compared to men, women reported significantly more weeks of mixed mania [relative rate (RR) = 8.53], fewer weeks of euthymia (RR = 0.58), more recurrences of mania (RR = 1.96), and more direct polarity shifts (RR = 1.49) (all p < 0.05). Women also reported significantly higher rates of lifetime sexual or physical abuse (68% versus 33%), which partially explained the relationships between gender and mixed mania and direct polarity shifts. Participants experienced persistent mood symptoms over time. Women consistently reported poorer mood outcomes, and lifetime abuse may help explain observed gender differences in mood outcomes. Further research is necessary to better understand the treatment implications of these findings.

Beneficial Effects of Estrogen in a Mouse Model of Cerebrovascular Insufficiency

BackgroundThe M5 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor is known to play a crucial role in mediating acetylcholine dependent dilation of cerebral blood vessels. Previously, we reported that male M5 muscarinic acetylcholine knockout mice (M5R −/− mice) suffer from a constitutive constriction of cerebral arteries, reduced cerebral blood flow, dendritic atrophy, and short-term memory loss, without necrosis and/or inflammation in the brain.Methodology/Principal FindingsWe employed the Magnetic Resonance Angiography to study the area of the basilar artery in male and female M5R −/− mice. Here we show that female M5R −/− mice did not show the reduction in vascular area observed in male M5R −/− mice. However, ovariectomized female M5R −/− mice displayed phenotypic changes similar to male M5R −/− mice, strongly suggesting that estrogen plays a key role in the observed gender differences. We found that 17β-estradiol (E2) induced nitric oxide release and ERK activation in a conditional immortalized mouse brain cerebrovascular endothelial cell line. Agonists of ERα, ERβ, and GPR30 promoted ERK activation in this cell line. Moreover, in vivo magnetic resonance imaging studies showed that the cross section of the basilar artery was restored to normal in male M5R −/− mice treated with E2. Treatment with E2 also improved the performance of male M5R −/− mice in a cognitive test and reduced the atrophy of neural dendrites in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus. M5R −/− mice also showed astrocyte swelling in cortex and hippocampus using the three-dimensional reconstruction of electron microscope images. This phenotype was reversed by E2 treatment, similar to the observed deficits in dendrite morphology and the number of synapses.Conclusions/SignificanceOur findings indicate that M5R −/− mice represent an excellent novel model system to study the beneficial effects of estrogen on cerebrovascular function and cognition. E2 may offer new therapeutic perspectives for the treatment of cerebrovascular insufficiency related memory dysfunction.

The association between social networks and colorectal cancer screening in American males and females: data from the 2005 Health Information National Trends Survey

We sought to explore the relationship between social networks and colorectal cancer (CRC) screening among males and females. We examined 960 men and 1,947 women aged 50 years or older who participated in the 2005 Health Information National Trends Survey. Bivariate analysis showed that lower levels of social integration were associated with a lower likelihood of CRC screening for both genders. After controlling for sociodemographic variables, the level of social integration remained independently associated with CRC screening. The link between each component of social networks and CRC screening was also examined. Among men, those who did not have friends/family to talk to about their health were less likely to be screened (OR 0.48, 95% CI: 0.30-0.77). Among women, those who were unmarried (OR 0.67, 95% CI: 0.41-0.93), those who did not have friends/family to talk to about their health (OR 0.62, 95% CI: 0.43-0.77), and those who were not a member of any community organizations (OR 0.58, 95% CI: 0.43-0.90) were less likely to be screened. For both men and women, individuals who were socially isolated were less likely to get CRC screening compared with individuals who were less isolated. The observed gender differences indicate the need for investigation of the social context and the meaning of elements of social networks in men and women.

Angiotensin receptor gene polymorphisms and 2-year change in hyperintense lesion volume in men

This longitudinal study examined the relationship between 2-year change in white matter hyperintense lesion (WML) volume and polymorphisms in genes coding for the angiotensin-II type 1 and type 2 receptors, AGTR1 A1166C and AGTR2 C3123A. 137 depressed and 94 nondepressed subjects age 60 years or older were enrolled. Standard clinical evaluations were performed on all subjects and blood samples obtained for genotyping. 1.5T MRI was obtained at baseline and approximately two years later. These scans were processed using a semi-automated segmentation process which allowed for the calculation of WML volume at each time point. Statistical models tested for the relationship between change in WML volume and genotype, while also controlling for age, sex, diagnostic strata, baseline WML volume, and comorbid cerebrovascular risk factors. In men, AGTR1 1166A allele homozygotes exhibited significantly less change in WML volume than 1166C carriers. We also found that men reporting hypertension with the AGTR2 3123C allele exhibit less change in WML volume than hypertensive men with the 3123A allele, or men without hypertension. There were no significant relationships between these polymorphisms and change in WML volume in women. No significant gene-gene or gene-depression interactions were observed. Our results parallel previously observed gender differences of the relationship between other renin-angiotensin system polymorphisms and hypertension. Further work is needed to determine if these observed relationships are secondary to polymorphisms affecting response to antihypertensive medication, and if antihypertensive medications can slow WML progression and lower the risk of morbidity associated with WMLs.

The Relationship Between Gender and Postconcussion Symptoms After Sport-Related Mild Traumatic Brain Injury

The authors sought to define the relationship between gender and postconcussion symptoms (PCSx) at 3 months after sport-related mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) and, further, to examine whether age (minors vs. adults), source of PCSx reporting (self-reported vs. proxy), previous head injury or loss of consciousness, or the sport type in which the mTBI was incurred explain any observed gender differences in PCSx. Prospective nested cohort study. Regional trauma center emergency department. A total of 260 patients who presented with sport-related mTBI, as defined by American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine criteria, began the study. The participants who lacked litigation concerning the mTBI and had participated in the follow-up assessment completed the study (n = 215). Self, proxy, and interviewer report of age, gender, previous head injury or loss of consciousness, and sport in which injury was sustained. Rivermead Post Concussion Symptoms Questionnaire (RPQ). Adult females are at greater risk for elevated RPQ scores (odds ratio [OR] = 2.89, 95% confidence interval [95% CI] = 1.25-6.71; P = .013) but not female minors (OR = 0.87, 95% CI = 0.45-1.71]; P = .695), as compared with male subjects. Adjustment for empirically identified confounders in each age group revealed persisting elevated risk for adult females (OR = 2.57, 95% CI = 1.09-6.08; P = .031), but not minor females (OR = 1.07, 95% CI = 0.52-2.19, P = .852). The risk associated with female gender in adults could not be explained by characteristics of the sports, such as helmeted versus not, or contact versus no contact, in which women incurred mTBIs. No sport characteristics were associated with increased risk of PCSx after mTBI. Adult females, but not female minors, are at increased risk for PCSx after sport-related mTBI as compared with male patients. This increased risk cannot be explained by self-report, rather than proxy report, of symptoms, previous head injury or loss of consciousness, age, or sport characteristics. Further research is needed to elucidate the processes of age-differential recovery from mild brain injury in women and on how to most effectively incorporate appropriate follow-up after emergency department evaluation.

Lack of Gender Differences in Lifetime Substance Use Reported Among African-American Urban Community College Students

The purpose of this study was to examine whether there are significant gender differences concerning lifetime prevalence of substance use reported among a group of African-American urban community college students. Although gender differences have commonly been examined in studies of substance use and abuse, it appears that gender similarities may be more significant, including substance abusers and treatment. The interaction between gender and ethnicity is also more complex than generally acknowledged. Respondents completed sections of the Student Drinking Information Scale, the Family History of Alcoholism Scale, and the Khavari-Douglass Psychotropics Questionnaire. Lifetime prevalence was examined respectively for alcohol, tobacco, marijuana, cocaine, amphetamines, barbiturates, relaxants, and opiate drugs. The only substance category where a significant difference was observed between males and females was in reference to opiates. There was also no significant difference between the males and females in this sample with respect to reported family history of alcoholism. This general lack of observed gender difference in lifetime substance use suggests that addiction studies must more closely investigate this area of gender and ethnicity for more meaningful distinctions. This discussion will consider gender differences in substance use, gender differences and treatment, and interactions of gender and ethnicity and then will examine gender similarities with respect to substance use and abuse and, more specifically, gender similarities in substance abusers and treatment. Next follows an overview of methods, which includes procedures and instrumentation, the results of the study will be presented, and will be followed by a few concluding comments.