National Development Objectives Research Articles

The Role of Ground Water in Sub‐Saharan Africa

Although water resources managers speak of a water crisis in Africa, the management of ground water has to date not featured strongly in national and regional African water agendas. Examination of the physical environment of the continent and, in particular, the water resources in relation to the socioeconomic landscape and regional development challenges makes it clear that widely occurring, albeit largely low-yielding, ground water resources will be crucial in the achievement of water security and development. Ground water is important primarily in domestic water and sanitation services, but also for other local productive needs like community gardens, stock watering, and brick-making, all essential to secure a basic livelihood and thus to alleviate poverty. Despite the importance of small-scale farming in Africa, there is little information on the present and potential role of ground water in agriculture. In contrast to its socioeconomic and ecological importance, ground water has remained a poorly understood and managed resource. Widespread contamination of ground water resources is occurring, and the important environmental services of ground water are neglected. There appear to be critical shortcomings in the organizational framework and the building of institutional capacity for ground water. Addressing this challenge will require a much clearer understanding and articulation of ground water's role and contribution to national and regional development objectives and an integrated management framework, with top-down facilitation of local actions.

Measuring aid governance in developing countries: an application to post-tsunami Aceh, Indonesia

In contrast to the popular debate on managing international aid to achieve good governance in developing countries, this article focuses on ensuring good governance of aid processes (or good aid governance) between partners in development, to achieve national and local development objectives. Starting with the case of the reconstruction process in Aceh, Indonesia, since the December 2004 tsunami, the article draws conclusions on the aid governance challenges involved when coordinating multiple stakeholders and projects, while taking into consideration the complexities of the local political economy. Taking a critical look at the indicators of aid effectiveness developed from the Paris Declaration in 2005, the article argues for the use of a more relevant, simple and realistic set of locally generated aid governance indicators to achieve the desired development outcomes. Points for practitioners Partners in development need to shift their focus from aid for good governance, to ensuring good governance of aid processes (or good aid governance) in order to achieve national and local development objectives. Despite mixed evidence, current aid effectiveness frameworks such as the Paris Declaration of 2005 still implicitly suggest that good governance is a pre-requisite to development. The concept and measurement of aid governance by donors and country recipients, as partners in the design, delivery, implementation and management of aid, will vary according to local contexts. In a participatory manner, partners must develop a simple, clear and locally generated measurement framework to provide evidence on aid governance. This framework requires focusing on aid processes and outcomes in a collaborative effort between partners involved in the management and administration of aid, as well as with implementers at the local level.

The Developmental Impact of the Asian Drivers on Senegal

(1250) Eric Hazard, Lotje De Vries, Mamadou Alimou Barry and Alexis Aka Anouan, with Nicolas Pinaud African countries have deepened their commercial and diplomatic relationships with China and India, and Senegal has been no exception. The historical context of the relationships, however, has differed. While Senegal already enjoyed a long-lasting and stable relationship with India, relations with China have been more erratic, in particular on account of Dakar’s recognition of the Republic of China. We analyse trade and investment patterns with the Asian Drivers and how Senegal can form a relationship with these two superpowers that can contribute to its national development objectives. Contrary to other countries in Africa, Senegal is not a large producer of natural resources other than phosphates and fisheries and its consumer market is also rather limited. We find scarce evidence of large-scale FDI flows and the amount of official development assistance is similarly anecdotic. For China and India, Senegal is of some interest as a logistical and commercial centre, rather than a production base for regional or foreign markets. Over the longer run, as these two countries are likely to become more important for Senegal simply on account of their increasing relevance on the world stage, we argue that it is essential that the authorities take these factors into account in developing policies that cater for economic development and social priorities.

Co-benefit as an approach to align climate change concerns with national development objectives: solid waste management

Impinging local environmental problems on the one hand and constantly persuasive climate change concerns on the other put developing Asian cities in a dilemma as to which direction they should channel their efforts. While local matters are their immediate mandate, increasing awareness of climate change vulnerabilities adds weight to global problems. In this context, the concepts of co-benefits and ancillary benefits play an important role in aligning climate change concerns into sector-specific developmental goals. This article presents the conceptual aspects of co-benefits and the integration of climate concerns into sustainable development goals. The possible synergies between these two different but very important strategic pathways are examined along with possible ways to align them. The bottlenecks that can occur during such integration are also highlighted.

Tourism, Public Policy and Regional Development: A Turn from Neo-liberalism to the New Regionalism

The use of tourism as a driver of economic development is widely acknowledged. In New Zealand and internationally, tourism is used overtly as a mechanism by which governments are able to address a variety of national, regional and local development objectives. In this paper, we present a critique of recent responses in New Zealand to the task of guiding tourism development from a strategic and collaborative sustainable development perspective. As argued in this paper, the roles and responsibilities of government in tourism were reinvented during the 1980s and 1990s. These changes, inspired by a neo-liberal political ideology to deregulate the New Zealand economy and to restructure the state sector and local government, ultimately included the tourism sector. More recently, however, public sector policy initiatives indicate a shift towards a more pro-active role for the local state (local and regional government) in managing tourism development. This shift, informed by a New Regionalism policy framework, anticipates a devolved tourism planning mandate that fosters longer-term strategic and collaborative planning of the sector in order to enhance the contribution of tourism to sustainable community wellbeing. We reflect on the likely effectiveness of a devolved tourism planning mandate and interrogate the role and potential of tourism to contribute to regional development, as framed by the political philosophies of the New Regionalism.

Sustainable use and genetic improvement

SummarySustainable use of animal genetic resources for agriculture and food production is proposed as the best strategy for maintaining their diversity. Achievement of sustainable use would continue to support livelihoods and minimize the long-term risk for survival of animal populations. The concept of sustainable use has economic, environmental and socio-cultural dimensions. Sustainable use of animal genetic resources also contributes to food security, rural development, increasing employment opportunities and improving standards of living of keepers of breeds. Supporting the rearing of breeds through better infrastructure, services, animal health care, marketing opportunities and other interventions would make a significant contribution to the sustainable use of animal genetic resources.Sustainable use envisages the use and improvement of breeds that possess high levels of adaptive fitness to the prevailing environment. It also encompasses the deployment of sound genetic principles for sustainable development of the breeds and the sustainable intensification of the production systems themselves. Sustainable use and genetic improvement rely on access to a wide pool of genetic resources.Genetic improvement programmes need to be considered in terms of national agriculture and livestock development objectives, suitability to local conditions and livelihood security as well as environmental sustainability. Genetic improvement can involve choice of appropriate breeds, choice of a suitable pure breeding or crossbreeding system and application of within-breed genetic improvement. The choice of appropriate breeds and crossbreeding systems in developed countries has been a major contributor to the large increases in productivity, and has benefited greatly from the fact that developed country animal genetic resources are well characterized and relatively freely exchanged. Where proper steps have been followed by careful assessment of demand, execution, delivery, impact and cost-benefit analyses, successful within-breed improvement has been realized within indigenous populations in developing countries. Breeding objectives and programmes for subsistence oriented and pastoralist systems are likely to be entirely different from conventional programmes. Crossbreeding has been most successful where it is followed by a rigorous selection programme involving livestock owners' participation and substantial public sector investment in the form of technical support. In any genetic improvement programme, inbreeding needs to be monitored and controlled.Within-breed genetic improvement is normal practice in the developed world, and has become a highly technical enterprise, involving a range of reproduction, recording, computing and genomic technologies. Emerging genomic technologies promise the ability to identify better, use and improve developing world animal genetic resources in the foreseeable future. Useful systems can, however, be established without the need for application of advanced technology or processes.

DOHA, DEVELOPMENT AND DISCRIMINATION*

Abstract. Two distinct challenges confront WTO members – whether to ‘save’ the WTO’– that is, a multilateral trading system that is based on non‐discrimination and most favoured nation liberalization – and if so, how to do so, and determining what role the WTO should play in attaining (pursuing) national development objectives. This paper explores whether moves to achieve the first objective will help achieve the latter, and whether specific actions to pursue more seriously economic development objectives through the WTO could help move the system closer to achieving the goal of non‐discrimination.

Not just another multi-professional course! Part 1. Rationale for a transformative curriculum

Undergraduate inter- and multi-professional education has traditionally aimed to develop health professionals who are able to collaborate effectively in comprehensive healthcare delivery. The respective professions learn from and about each other through comparisons of roles, responsibilities, powers, duties and perspectives in order to promote integrated service. Described here is the educational rationale of a multi-professional course with a difference; one that injects value to undergraduate health professional education through the development of critical cross-field knowledge, skills and attitudes that unite rather than differentiate professions. The aim of this course, offered at the Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, is to lay an integrated, pan-professional foundation for the advancement of collective commitment to and understanding of national health and social development objectives such as primary health care, human rights and professionalism. Pan-professional refers to curriculum content that is core and of critical relevance to all participating professions. What is learned, how it is learned, how learning is facilitated and how it is applied, has been co-constructed by a multi-professional design team representing a range of health professions (audiology, medicine, occupational therapy, nursing, physiotherapy and speech therapy) and academic disciplines (anthropology, sociology, psychology, history, African studies and social development, information technology and language literacy). Education specialists facilitate the ongoing design process ensuring that the structure and content of the curriculum complies with contemporary adult learning principles and national higher education imperatives. Designing the original curriculum required the deconstruction of intra-professional and disciplinary canons of knowledge and ways of ‘doing things’ in order to identify and develop shared interpretations of critical epistemology and axiology for health professional practice in the South African context. This enabled the alignment of the learning objectives, at first year level, of all the represented professions. The educational rationale guiding the curriculum design process is discussed in Part 1 of two articles. Part 2 describes the ‘nuts and bolts’ or practicalities of the curriculum design process.

Institutions and governance: public staff management in Tanzania

The importance of institutions is one of the distinctive features of the new governance model. This article is an empirical study of how the institutional framework affects the way public servants are managed in Tanzania. In the ‘Ujamaa’ period, staffing institutions were placed under the control of the ruling party so that they would serve national development objectives, but the effect was to contaminate the efficiency and integrity of government. The legal framework conferred excessive powers on the President, and centralised staffing authority in agencies which were largely rubber-stamping bodies, and it allowed duplication of functions between central and line agencies. Recent reforms have not altered this situation. In a climate of corruption and favouritism, there was little confidence in the integrity of civil service staffing. There was a need to strengthen its independence, to devolve and to align the institution governing it with current political and development objectives while controlling corruption at lower levels. Our findings may have an application to the institutions of government as a whole. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

CIT in developing countries: The case of Trinidad and Tobago

Trinidad and Tobago is faced with the challenge of developing strategies to integrate successfully in the new knowledge economy. Many governmental actions towards "wiring" the nation are currently taking place. Creation of the "intelligent nation" is among country's national development objectives. Vis-a-vis plans yet to be designed and implemented over the next ten years there is a reality of the www option that has gained a momentum, and is already playing an important role in Trinidad and Tobago. While during the first years the www has been accepted as a medium for communicating and sharing information, today it has moved onto the next generation transforming into the development supporting tool. The experience of Trinidad and Tobago in using the CIT-based alternative is the focus of this paper. It explores the state of the art in the field, and discusses the way the alternative has been utilized so far in the country's development and management practice. It also identifies the potentials for further development, and suggests a number of proposals for future strategies and actions.

Developing institutions for the clean development mechanism (CDM): African perspectives

Abstract The clean development mechanism (CDM) requires developing countries to set up designated national authorities (DNAs). The DNA should be designed to both attract investment and to establish an effective regulatory framework for project approval—including assessment to ensure that CDM projects contribute to national sustainable development objectives. Since CDM investment flows to Africa are uncertain, however, countries cannot risk large investments in institutional infrastructure and need to build on existing institutions. This article examines the critical functions that a DNA has to fulfil, and outlines several institutional models. It concludes that models that minimize institutional cost by drawing on existing institutions for environmental impact assessment and promotion of foreign direct investment are likely to be the best starting-point for DNAs in many African countries.

Developing institutions for the clean development mechanism (CDM): African perspectives

The clean development mechanism (CDM) requires developing countries to set up designated national authorities (DNAs). The DNA should be designed to both attract investment and to establish an effective regulatory framework for project approval—including assessment to ensure that CDM projects contribute to national sustainable development objectives. Since CDM investment flows to Africa are uncertain, however, countries cannot risk large investments in institutional infrastructure and need to build on existing institutions. This article examines the critical functions that a DNA has to fulfil, and outlines several institutional models. It concludes that models that minimize institutional cost by drawing on existing institutions for environmental impact assessment and promotion of foreign direct investment are likely to be the best starting-point for DNAs in many African countries.

Trends in Global Environmental Governance: The Emergence of a Mutual Supportiveness Approach to Achieve Sustainable Development

The experience of the last ten years of global environmental negotiations suggests that a new and different approach to international cooperation is required if we are to achieve sustainable development. While multilateral environmental agreements have provided a valuable framework for building a consensus on broad objectives, their implementation requires a focus on the underlying activities that cause environmental degradation. Moreover, globalization encourages the development and use of innovative technologies, leading to a large degree of overlap between global environmental concerns and national sustainable development objectives. These shifts require wholly new perspectives that are based less on determining responsibilities and more on supporting mutually reinforcing transformations. The new approach also looks beyond the state to other stakeholders as contributors to achieving sustainable development.

CONTEMPORARY CHALLENGES FOR ECOTOURISM IN VIETNAM

With a rapidly growing domestic and international tourism industry, the government of Vietnam has taken a number of tourism-related initiatives since early 1999. These include the issuing of an Ordinance on Tourism, which provides the legal and policy foundations for developing tourism with due regard for conserving biodiversity and ensuring social, cultural, and environmental sustainability, and the proposal to revise the existing Tourism Development Master Plan to produce a Tourism Master Plan for Sustainable Tourism Development in Vietnam. Through these initiatives the government of Vietnam has moved towards planning the management of tourism to ensure sustainable outcomes, and ecotourism and cultural tourism have been proposed as preferred tourism development options. One destination focus of this preferred tourism option is the protected area system of Vietnam. This article presents a series of themes as key areas for discussion, to assist Vietnam as it endeavors to assess the current proposed Tourism Master Plan (2001–2010) as a means of achieving national development objectives. A month-long ecotourism training workshop for protected area managers was held in Hanoi in February–March 2000. Through this workshop, four primary themes were identified as presenting major challenges for those with responsibility to balance conservation with increasing tourist visitation: the structure and administration of the protected area system, tourism infrastructure, providing for the needs of local communities, and effective communication across all relevant stakeholders. This article explores these challenges based on the review of a range of in-house reports and documents, the recorded views of Vietnamese government officials, academics, and protected area managers, discussions with and surveys of workshop participants, and visits to a number of national parks and tourist locations.

Creative problem solving in support of biodiversity conservation

Biodiversity in developing countries is inextricably linked with development. Consequently, policies to conserve biodiversity must take into account national development objectives and vice versa. Policy makers in developing countries are forced to identify creative ways of conserving biodiversity while supporting development and eradicating poverty. Even more than elsewhere, arid countries must focus on biodiversity valuation for both direct (e.g. biotrade, biotechnology and tourism) and indirect (e.g. ecosystem function, aesthetics and cultural values) uses. While inappropriate policies can undermine the conservation of biodiversity, good policies do not ensure that it takes place. Particularly in arid regions, policy markers and managers must have diverse skills to address a wide variety of challenges. Adaptive management is essential for biodiversity conservation in arid environments. It requires regular, informed problem-solving over a wide range of issues, and this, in turn, requires adequate and accessible databases concerning appropriate indicators of environmental change. Major headaches for planners are the intrinsic variability of arid environments, the long-term, changes that occur, and the often uncharismatic biota involved. Managers must be able to handle rapid and adaptive program planning and implementation, monitoring and evaluation, dissemination of information to authorities and the general public, and, often, training of junior and volunteer staff. Management education in support of the conservation of biodiversity in arid environments must focus on problem-solving skills and information management to ensure the depth and breadth of the training.

Carbon offsets for conservation and development in Indonesia?

The logic of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and other such ‘carbon (C) offsets’ rests on the notion that the opportunity cost of reducing C emissions is lower in developing countries, creating opportunities for mutually beneficial C trading. While the CDM may offer significant gross financial benefits, there has been little analysis of the opportunity costs of foregone resource exploitation and development opportunities. In addition to assessing the potential for net benefits, this paper also considers the practical implications for design and implementation of C offsets for forest conservation and agroforestation in Indonesia. Virtually nothing is known about these administrative factors, and their associated costs, which can also play a decisive role in feasibility of C offset schemes. Data are from field studies in the lowlands of the Indonesian island of Sumatra, where forests and derived land uses are broadly representative of the lowland humid tropical rainforest systems of insular South-East Asia. These data are the basis for assessing the trade-offs between natural forest protection for C sequestration and conversion to other land uses to meet national development objectives that directly affect people's livelihoods. Carbon stocks are analyzed in terms of ‘time-averaged’ C, an indicator developed for this project. Opportunity costs of land-use alternatives are estimated using standard techniques for economic assessment of investment projects in developing countries. The study finds that imputed timber values are a significant share of the opportunity costs of forest conservation, even for conservative estimates of timber prices. The question of compensating for these foregone values raises complex questions regarding the political economy of Indonesia, since property rights over these resources are highly contentious. These controversies over property rights are also examined within the context of recurrent smoke pollution from land fires in Indonesia, that (among other problems) contribute to greenhouse gas emissions. This smoke is symptomatic of deeper political and institutional problems that raise questions about the permanence of C storage through land-use practices in Indonesia. In comparison to forest conservation, C offsets through agroforestation seem more feasible in Indonesia because property rights over timber from planted trees would be easier to establish and enforce than property rights over timber from natural forests. Although results in this paper look promising, there is still much to be learned about implementation costs, even for the ‘easier’ case of agroforestation.

Avoiding Conflicts over Africa's Water Resources

Some 85% of Africa's water resources are comprised of large river basins that are shared between several countries. High rates of population growth accompanied by continued increases in the demand for water have resulted in several countries passing the point where the scarcity of water supplies effectively limits further development. Present population trends and patterns of water use suggest that more African countries will exceed the limits of their economically usable, land-based water resources before 2025. Normally, water allocation and distribution priorities within a country are aligned with national development objectives. While this may achieve national "water security" objectives, greater emphasis needs to be placed on regional efforts to ensure that the available water resources are used to derive sustainable long-term benefits for the peoples of Africa as a whole. Ideally, each country's water-resource management strategy needs to be aligned with that of its neighbors if peace and prosperity are to be maintained and conflict is to be avoided in the region.

Cam Ranh Bay: Past Imperfect, Future Conditional

********** This article reviews the likely future of Cam Ranh Bay in Vietnam in the light of the announcement on 17 October 2001 that Russia will withdraw the last of its military forces in early 2002. Cam Ranh hosts a deep-water port astride the sea lines of communication in the South China Sea. The article provides a historical overview of the development of Cam Ranh Bay during the Soviet period. After Russia's final withdrawal, three countries might seek access: China, the United States, and India. This article assesses the prospects of each country and concludes that India is most likely to be granted access privileges. However, this does preclude Vietnam from granting access rights to other countries on a case-by-case basis. Introduction On 12 June 2001, the Vietnamese Foreign Ministry endeavoured to put an end to speculation concerning the future of Cam Ranh Bay naval base when it announced that once Russia's lease over the facility expired in 2004, Hanoi's policy was not to sign an agreement with any country to use Cam Ranh Bay for military purposes. (1) Instead, the government would exploit the potential and advantages of Cam Ranh Bay to serve its national socio-economic development objectives. (2) In other words, after 2004 Cam Ranh Bay would become a purely commercial facility. This announcement dealt a severe blow to the Russian Navy's pretensions in East Asia. It also made nonsense of the much vaunted Russia-Vietnam strategic partnership announced by President Vladimir Putin during his visit to Hanoi in March 2001. With the Russians themselves now saying that they will begin their withdrawal in January 2002, (3) well before the 2004 deadline, the question arises whether Vietnam will indeed allow the navies of other regional powers to use its facilities at Cam Ranh Bay once the Russians have left. There are three prime candidates: China, the United States, and India. Vietnam's ongoing territorial dispute with China over the Spratlys would rule out a Chinese military presence at the facility. Although the United States had expressed an interest in returning to Cam Ranh Bay in the past, and the Bush Administration's new Asia-focused defence policy would make U.S. military access there an attractive option, the weight of U.S.-Vietnam historical baggage and Hanoi's sensitive relationship with Beijing suggests that the Vietnamese may be reluctant to grant access at this moment in time. Instead, India may emerge as the country most likely to become a more frequent user of Cam Ranh Bay, as the geopolitical interests of New Delh i and Hanoi increasingly converge. This would preclude Russian ships from still calling in, and Vietnam could also grant permission on a case-by-case basis for naval visits from countries whose warships have previously made port calls: Australia, France, the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malaysia. Cam Ranh Bay: The French, Japanese, and U.S. Presence Cam Ranh Bay is situated in the south-central Vietnamese province of Khanh Hoa, and lies 220 miles north of Ho Chi Minh City (Saigon). It is regarded as one of the finest deep-water anchorages in Asia, and gives excellent access to the commercially and strategically important sea lines of communication (SLOCs) which cross the South China Sea. The important geographical position of the bay was immediately apparent to the French colonial authorities who constructed naval facilities and a fort there in the nineteenth century. However, it was until the 1904-05 Russo-Japanese War that Cam Ranh came to the attention of the wider world. On 14 April 1905, a fleet of forty Russian naval vessels under the command of Admiral Zinovi Rozhdestvenski sailed into the Bay for reprovisioning and coaling. (4) The fleet was on an epic and ultimately disastrous 18,000--mile voyage from the Baltic to reinforce Russian forces at Port Arthur in Manchuria. A few days after their arrival, the French, under pressure from the Japane se, asked the Russians to leave. …

INTERGOVERNMENTAL TRANSFERS AND DECENTRALISATION IN INDONESIA

A fundamental restructuring of intergovernmental relations involving decentralisation and expanded autonomy for provincial and local governments is under way in Indonesia. This paper explores the intergovernmental financial system that preceded the new General Allocation Fund (DAU), with particular attention to the old Inpres development grants. Like Inpres, the DAU attempts to address national development objectives, and can be seen as a logical consequence of reform efforts in intergovernmental finance that began long before the demise of the New Order government in 1998. The use of earmarked Inpres grants enabled the central government to ensure that key sectors such as roads, public health and education received adequate attention throughout Indonesia's diverse regions. Local governments' experience with Inpres should help in implementation of the DAU, yet Law 25/1999which restructures fiscal relations between the various levels of governmentmay actually have increased local reliance on the central government.

Old institutions, new opportunities: the emerging nature of Koranic schools in Somaliland in the 1990s

While Koranic schools are omnipresent throughout Somaliland and can boast a student enrolment rate of 60% compared to just 17% in primary schools, their contribution to basic education is either not known or thought to be insignificant. This paper reports on a survey to establish the current structure of Koranic schools in Somaliland, with a view to documenting the changing nature of the institution and assessing its potential to effectively address the expansion of basic education. It discusses survey findings on the material conditions of the Koranic schools; enrolment by age and sex; background of the teachers; opportunities for learning beyond memorisation of the Koran; and level of community and outside involvement in managing and sustaining the schools. The conclusion drawn is that Koranic schools have remained remarkably resilient and popular since their introduction in Somaliland 700 years ago, and contrary to common beliefs about the institution, virtually all the Koranic schools surveyed included elements of basic education and thus offered more than rote memorisation of the Koran. Although more research is required, the evidence appears to strongly support the possibility of widening the focus of Koranic schools to include primary education as envisioned by the Somaliland white paper on education. Koranic schools have the advantage of high coverage, low cost and willingness of parents to pay. Without an effective bridge to formally link Koranic and primary schools, the paper suggests that Somaliland may never be able to lift itself out of the present spiral of low human capital development and under-investment in the most vital base of its population, the children. Nor could Somaliland meaningfully aspire to the objective of Education for All, including nomads, or any future national development objectives that are based on a large educated labour force. On the other hand, the introduction of basic education in Koranic schools will contribute both instantly and immensely to human resources development in the Republic, by targeting the large number of in-Koranic-school but out-of-primary-school children.