Object Control Skills Research Articles

Fundamental Movement Skills and Accelerometer-Measured Physical Activity Levels during Early Childhood: A Systematic Review.

Early childhood is a key period for children to begin developing and practicing fundamental movement skills (FMS), while aiming to perform sufficient physical activity (PA). This study reviews the current evidence for the levels of achievement in FMS and PA measured using accelerometers among 4–5-year-old children and examines differences by gender. This review was conducted using the PRISMA framework. Keyword searches were conducted in Pubmed, Medline, Google Scholar and SPORTDiscus. Inclusion criteria included age: 4–5 years old; FMS measurement: Test of Gross Motor Development 2 and 3; PA measurement: objective methods; balance measurement: static single limb; study design: cross-sectional observational/descriptive, randomised control trials, intervention studies; language: English. Twenty-eight articles from twenty-one countries met the inclusion criteria and were split into either FMS and PA articles (n = 10) or balance articles (n = 18). Three articles showed children achieving 60 min of moderate to vigorous PA per day, two articles demonstrated significant differences between girls’ and boys’ performance of locomotor skills and five reported locomotor skills to be more proficient than object control skills at this age for both genders. Balance was measured in time (n = 12), points score (n = 3) or biomechanical variables (n = 3), displaying heterogeneity of not only measurement but also outcomes within these data, with static single limb balance held between 6.67 to 87.6 s within the articles. Four articles reported girls to have better balance than boys. There is little conclusive evidence of the current levels for FMS, PA and balance achievement in young children 4–5 years of age. The academic literature consistently reports low levels of FMS competence and mixed evidence for PA levels. Inconsistencies lie in balance measurement methodology, with broad-ranging outcomes of both low and high achievement at 4–5 years old. Further research is required to focus on increasing practice opportunities for children to improve their FMS, increase PA levels and establish sufficient balance ability. Consistent and comparable outcomes during early childhood through more homogenous methodologies are warranted.

Effect of Active Video Games on Healthy Children's Fundamental Motor Skills and Physical Fitness: A Systematic Review.

Objective: The present study aimed to synthesize the most updated literature regarding the casual evidence of the effects of active video games (AVGs) on fundamental motor skills (FMS; locomotor skills and object control skills) and physical fitness among healthy children. Methods: Electronic databases were searched through October 2020. Peer-reviewed randomized control trials (RCTs) and quasi-experimental designs examining the effectiveness of AVGs on FMS and physical fitness development among healthy children (3–12 years) were screened. Results: A total of nine RCTs and one quasi-experimental study were included. Of the five studies examining the effect of AVGs on FMS, two reported significant improvements, while three reported no significant improvements in motor skills development as compared to control. Of the five studies assessing the effects of AVGs on physical fitness, four reported significant improvements in physical fitness such as balance, agility, and speed, whereas one reported significant improvements in skill-related executive function, but not in physical competence. Conclusions: Overall, the current available evidence supports AVGs as an effective means to improve physical fitness, such as balance, postural stability, and agility, among healthy children. However, the findings of AVGs on healthy children’s object control and locomotor skills remain inconclusive.

Educational exercise program affects to physical fitness and gross motor function differently in the severity of autism spectrum disorder.

This study investigated the effects of participating in an educational exercise program on physical fitness and gross motor function (GMF) in adults with varying degrees of autistic spectrum disorder (ASD). The subjects consisted of 35 voluntary male participants between 20 and 29 years of age who were allocated to one of two groups: mild ASD (n=17) group and severe ASD (n=18) group. All selected tests for physical fitness, including body composition and GMF, have been used in previous studies. The results were as follows: first, with the exception of the basal metabolic rate, there were significant differences in the interaction of all other body composition variables. Second, there were significant differences in the interaction of almost all physical fitness variables, except for muscle strength. Finally, although there were significant differences in the interaction of all variables, except the locomotion skill for hopping, there were significant differences in the interaction of all variables of object control skill. Specifically, although the Δ% in the sum of locomotion skill in mild ASD group increased ~19.81%, that of severe ASD group decreased ~4.78%. The Δ% in the sum of object control skill in mild ASD group improved ~29.96%, while that of severe ASD group reduced ~15.2%. In conclusion, it is thought that these results are due to the better understanding of educational exercise and better performance of educational exercise in adults with mild ASD compared to adults with severe ASD.

Prevalence of fundamental movement skill proficiency among Iranian children aged 2.5–14 years

ObjectivesTo determine the prevalence of fundamental movement skill (FMS) proficiency among a sample of Iranian children. DesignCross sectional, representative sample of 2200 children aged 2.5–14 years (50% girls), living in Tehran in 2018. MethodsTrained field staff assessed 7 locomotor and 4 object control skills in educational settings using the Ohio State University Scale of Intra-Gross Motor Assessment (OSU-SIGMA). Scores for levels 1–3 represent immature performance and level 4 represents proficiency. Data were analyzed by age and sex. ResultsOverall, proficiency prevalences were higher in boys than girls. Proficiency in walking and running emerged in children from age 2.5 years, and proficiency in more complex locomotor skills (i.e., jumping, skipping, hopping, ladder-climbing) and object control skills emerged at age 6 years. The prevalence of proficiency in hopping, jumping, skipping and all object control skills were low in children aged <9 years. All children aged ≥9 years were proficient in all locomotor skills. At age 9 years, the prevalence of object control proficiency were high for throwing (boys 100%, girls 89%), catching (boys 89%, girls 65%), striking (boys 69%, girls 53%) and low for kicking (boys 45%, girls 41%). All children ≥11 years were proficient in all FMS except kicking (boys 61%, girls 55%). ConclusionsFMS proficiency were age and sex related with proficiency in most skills emerging around age 6 years. All children aged ≥11 years were proficient in all FMS, except kicking. The findings may be useful to guide the development of intervention programs in Iranian children aged 2.5–10 years.

Effectiveness of a novel digital application to promote fundamental movement skills in 3- to 6-year-old children: A randomized controlled trial

ABSTRACT Objective Fundamental movement skills (FMS) are the foundational building blocks for lifetime participation in physical activity (PA). Programmes to promote FMS development have been primarily delivered in childcare settings. No studies have evaluated the effectiveness of an interactive digital application, designed to be co-used by parent and child, to increase FMS proficiency in preschool-aged children. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of the Moovosity™ programme, a novel digital application to increase FMS proficiency in 3- to 6-year-old children. Methods: A randomized controlled trial (RCT) was conducted involving 34 parent-child dyads randomly assigned to either the 8-week intervention (n = 17) or wait-list control (n = 17) condition. FMS proficiency, PA, and parental support for PA was assessed at baseline and 8-weeks. Intervention participants were given free access to the app over a period of 8 weeks. Wait-listed controls were given access after the 8-week period. Group differences for pre to post changes in outcomes were tested for significance using general linear mixed models. Results: There was a significant group by time interaction for object control skills (F1,32 = 10.81, P = 0.003). Intervention children exhibited significant improvements in object control skills, while children in the wait-list control group exhibited a modest decline. Intervention children also exhibited improvements in locomotor skills, while wait-listed controls exhibited minimal change; however, the group by time interaction fell outside the 0.05 level of significance (F1,32 = 3.15, P = 0.09). There were no significant intervention effects observed for child PA (F1,32 = 0.03, P = 0.86) and parental support for PA (F1,32 = 0.84, P = 0.37). Conclusions: An 8-week exposure to a digital application to promote motor competence within a family environment was effective in improving FMS proficiency in preschool-aged children. The results warrant further investigation in larger trials.

Promoting Adapted Physical Activity Regardless of Language Ability in Young Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder

ABSTRACT Purpose: There is a relationship between motor and language skills in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), but little work addresses the ramifications of this relationship for professionals who teach motor skills to this population. Within a motor skills intervention, this study probed the importance of language skills for motor intervention. We examined the relationship between motor and language skills at baseline, and then the relationship between baseline language skills and motor improvements resulting from the intervention. Method: Twenty children aged 4–6 years with ASD participated. Eleven children received 20 hr per week of motor intervention for 8 weeks. Nine children did not receive motor intervention. Language skills (Mullen Scales of Early Learning) and motor skills (Test of Gross Motor Development – 2) were assessed at baseline and post-intervention. Spearman correlations tested the associations between baseline language and baseline motor skills. This analysis was repeated in the intervention sample to test the association between baseline language level and response to intervention (motor skill changes from baseline to post-intervention). Results: Prior to intervention, locomotor skills are positively correlated (p < .001) with both receptive (rs = 0.827) and expressive (rs = 0.722) language skills. Similarly, object-control skills are positively correlated (rs < .001) with receptive (rs = 0.779) and expressive (rs = 0.729) language skills. However, those baseline language skills do not relate to motor change in the experimental group. Conclusion: These results suggest that motor programs may improve motor skills in children with ASD when language is supported, regardless of pre-program language ability.

Effect of Motor Development Levels on Kinematic Synergies During Two-Hand Catching in Children.

The ability to coordinate different body parts under different constraints that are imposed by organism, environment, and tasks during motor development might be different in children. The aim of this study was to examine whether children with different motor development levels are different with regard to multijoint coordination during two-hand catching. Eighty-four children (age: 6.05 ±0.67years) who were assessed on object control skills were recruited voluntarily. The biomechanical model was defined from 20 movements of seven segments (shoulders, elbows, wrists, and torso), and the principal component analysis was used to quantify the multijoint coordination and kinematic synergies during catching. The results showed that the redundancy of joints in two-hand catching is controlled by three kinematic synergies that defined the majority of the variance. The participants who were grouped based on their development levels did not show differences in the number and strength of synergies; however, they were different in the utilization of the kinematic synergies for successful catching. In conclusion, the number and the strength of the kinematic synergies during two-hand catching are not affected by the developmental levels and are related to the nature of the task.

Student outcomes of the physical education and physical literacy (PEPL) approach: a pragmatic cluster randomised controlled trial of a multicomponent intervention to improve physical literacy in primary schools

ABSTRACT Background: Health organisations such as the United Nations continue to place an expectation on school physical education (PE) programmes and wider school strategies to ensure students develop physical literacy and receive the well-established benefits of meeting physical activity guidelines. Barriers to meet this expectation such as lack of trained PE teachers, lack of time and greater emphasis on academic achievement are ongoing challenges to schools. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of the multi-component Physical Education Physical Literacy (PEPL) intervention, designed to improve students’ fundamental movement skill, perceived physical abilities and level of physical activity. Method: A qualified PE teacher implemented the PEPL intervention across seven schools, and another seven schools formed a control group as part of a randomised cluster-based trial. Grade 5 students (N = 318, age 10.4 years ± SD 0.4) completed assessments of physical activity, fundamental movement skill, attitudes towards PE, and self-perceptions of physical abilities before and after a 33-week intervention. Intervention effects were examined using general linear mixed models. Post-intervention focus groups with students were used to develop insights into experiences and outcomes. Results: With no significant gender interactions, the PEPL approach led to enhanced object control skills (β = 1.62; SE = 0.61; p = 0.008), with little evidence of any other fundamental movement skill improvements in excess of those in the control group. There was also modest evidence for an effect on accelerometer measured moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) during school time (β = 4.50; SE = 2.39; p = 0.058), but this was not accompanied by any significant intervention effect over the entire week. Questionnaires indicated students in the PEPL programme became less satisfied with their own sporting ability (β = −0.20; SE = 0.08; p = 0.013) but qualitative data analyses suggested that they enjoyed the PEPL approach experience, becoming more motivated and confident in their physical abilities. Conclusions: Evidence of enhanced object control skill, increased confidence and motivation to be physically active, and moderate evidence of more MVPA during school time, indicate that the introduction of the PEPL approach contributed to the development of student physical literacy. A decrease in perceived sporting competence warrants greater attention on student’s self-perceptions in future iterations of the intervention. Trial registration: Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry identifier: ACTRN12615000066583.

North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity Virtual Conference June 11–12, 2020

Objectives: Perceived motor competence is an important part of the physical self-concept. Whilst there are various questionnaires measuring physical self-concept and its sub-components in children and adolescents, few have focused on assessing self-perception of motor skills. To this end, the Perceived Motor Competence Questionnaire in Childhood (PMC-C; Dreiskaemper, Utesch & Tietjens, 2018) was developed to measure children’s perception of different locomotor and object control skills; the instrument has been validated in German. The present study aimed to investigate the construct validity of the English version of the questionnaire.Methods: A total of 324 children aged 8-12 years (M = 10.17, SD = 1.16) from Scotland (UK) took part in the study and completed the 24-item questionnaire, which uses a 4-point Likert scale. The PMC-C covers 4 locomotor skills (hop, jump run, and skip) and 4 object control skills (bounce, catch, kick, and throw) with 3 items per skill. Internal consistency was examined using polychoric alphas or omegas. The latent structure of the original PMC-C was tested using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA).Results: The results showed good internal consistency for locomotor skills (.78 – .88) and object control skills (.73 – .89), and ordered thresholds for all items. Furthermore, the CFA revealed a good model fit for the assumed structure of the original PMC-C (χ2(243) = 501.1, p < .001, TLI = .985, CFI = .987, RMSEA = .061).Conclusion: The study provides evidence for the construct validity of the English version of the PMC-C. This questionnaire is thus considered an appropriate tool to assess children’s self-perception of motor skills.

The Norm of Fundamental Movement Skills for Children Aged Three to Seven

Childhood was the key period for the development of fundamental movement skills, the acquisition of which had a definite bearing on a child's overall development, including such areas as cognition, interpersonal relationships, social behavior, and environmental awareness. The main purpose of this study was on the development of the norm of fundamental movement skills for children aged three to seven. In the method, we measured the development of such skills amongst 1,029 children in Taiwan aged 3–7 using the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2). The results indicated that the fundamental movement skills increase with age. With a percentile rank of 50 in the overall fundamental movement skills, the mean score of the eight age groups, boys performed better than girls in the seven age groups. In conclusion, compared to the United States, Taiwanese five through seven-year-olds lag far behind their American counterparts in locomotor and object control skills, and this situation needed to be addressed by education authorities in Taiwan. Based on the findings of this study, for preschool teachers, most are women with little or no training in FMS education. The curriculum of preschool teachers' training at the universities should incorporate FMS into the PE course, and it is important to ensure that each pre-service preschool teacher has the ability to design a series of 30-60 minutes of dynamic, age-appropriate and fun vigorous exercise.

An Intervention For Fundamental Motor Skills And Physical Activity In Pre-schoolers: A Cluster-randomized Controlled Trial

PURPOSE: Physical activity (PA) is important for health and development in preschool-aged children yet only 34% of Australian pre-schoolers achieve the recommended levels. Fundamental motor skill (FMS) interventions have been shown to improve FMS proficiency and PA levels, however, whether these changes are maintained post-intervention is unknown. We aimed to determine if a 12-week FMS program improved FMS and PA in pre-schoolers; and if so, whether these improvements were maintained 12 weeks post-intervention. METHODS: The PhysicaL ActivitY and Fundamental Motor Skills in Pre-schoolers (PLAYFun) Program was a cluster randomized controlled trial. Participants were recruited from 4 University pre-schools. The PLAYFun Program was a 12-week, games-based, FMS program delivered directly into the centers by an exercise physiologist. Primary outcomes included FMS proficiency, objective PA and parent perceived PA assessed at baseline, 12 weeks and 12 weeks after the completion of the intervention (week 24). Differences within and between groups were assessed via a one-way analysis of variance. RESULTS: Forty-nine participants (mean age 4.0±0.6; 54% male) were recruited. Children attended on average 2.0±1.0 sessions per week for 40 minutes per session. Participants in the PLAYFun Program demonstrated a significantly greater increase in object control (p=0.003) and total FMS (p=0.019) proficiency at week 12 compared to controls. Locomotor skills score (M 14.83 95% confidence interval (95%CI) [3.90 to 25.75]; p=0.012), object control skills (M 24.11 [9.93 to 38.29]; p=0.003) and gross motor quotient (M 20.14 [8.33 to 31.96]; p=0.003) all significantly improved when children attended twice a week, but these improvements were not maintained at 24 weeks. Girls in PLAYFun significantly increased objective moderate to vigorous PA after the intervention (P=0.015), but not boys. This increase was also not maintained 12 weeks post-completion of PLAYFun. No significant relationships between FMS and PA outcomes were identified. CONCLUSIONS: Motor skill programs delivered directly to preschool children by an exercise physiologist within their preschool is effective at improving FMS proficiency in boys and girls and PA in girls. However, these improvements are not maintained when the practice is not ongoing.

SPORTS STARS: a practitioner-led, peer-group sports intervention for ambulant children with cerebral palsy. Activity and participation outcomes of a randomised controlled trial

Purpose To investigate the effectiveness of a practitioner-led, peer-group sports intervention for children with CP at GMFCS Level I–II. Method Children with CP (GMFCS I–II; 6–12 years) were randomised to Sports Stars or waitlist-control groups. Sports Stars included eight-weeks (eight hours) of physiotherapist-led, sports-specific gross motor activity training, sports education, teamwork development and confidence building. Sports participation was measured using self-identified participation goals (modified Canadian Occupational Performance Measure (mCOPM)). Physical competence was measured with mCOPM activity goals and high-level gross motor batteries (Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD-2); GMFM-Challenge) and walking (Timed-Up-and-Go), running (Muscle Power Sprint Test; 10x5m Sprint Test), jumping (Standing Broad Jump; Vertical Jump) and throwing (Seated Throw) items. General participation and quality of life were also measured. Outcomes were measured pre, post and 12-weeks post-intervention. Data were analysed using linear mixed models. Results Fifty-four children were randomised into Sports Stars (n = 29; GMFCS I = 7, II = 22; male = 19; 8.9 ± 2 years) or waitlist-control groups (n = 25; GMFCS I = 10, II = 15; male = 14; 8.6 ± 2 years). The Sports Stars group improved sports participation and activity goals (mCOPM F = 5.49–10.29, p < 0.001) and sports-specific physical competence (TGMD-2, F = 3.45–5.19, p = 0.001–0.009) compared to the waitlist-control. Conclusion Sports Stars is effective for improving sports-specific participation and physical competence for children with CP. Implications for rehabilitation Sports Stars improves performance and satisfaction in sports-specific participation and activity goals for ambulant children with CP. Sports Stars improves sports-specific physical activity competence in locomotor and object control skills. Sport-specific interventions should incorporate sport-specific gross motor activity training as well as sports education, confidence building and teamwork.

Gross Motor Skills in Children with Cerebral Palsy and Intellectual Disability

Abstract Objectives The aim of this study is to determine the connection of gross motor skills (locomotor skills and object control) and the degree of associated intellectual disability (ID) in children with cerebral palsy (CP). Participants and methods The study sample included 54 children with CP and associated ID age 5 years to 6 years and 11 months. For the assessment of tested skills, The Gross Motor Function Classification System-Expanded and Revised (GMFCS-E&amp;R), Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-Fourth Edition (WPPSI-IV) and Test of Gross Motor Development Second Edition (TGMD-2) were used. Results The results of this study indicate better quality of locomotor skills than object control skills in children with CP and associated ID. Children with CP and mild ID have better quality of locomotor skills and object control, than children with CP and moderate ID. Differences between these 2 groups of children are presented relative to GMFCS-E&amp;R levels. Conclusion This study has determined significant interconnection of the quality of gross motor functions and intellectual capacity in preschool children with CP. This should be considered when creating more detailed individual developmental rehabilitation plan in children with CP and associated ID and predict adequate measures of developmental stimulation.

Gross motor function and health fitness in adults with autistic spectrum disorder and intellectual disability: single-blind retrospective trial

This study aimed at providing an exercise program for each type of disability after analyzing the exercise program performed by adults with intellectual disability (ID) or autistic spectrum disorder (ASD). Twenty-nine male adults voluntarily took part in this study, whose age ranged from 19 to 28 years and with an average body mass index of 23.98± 4.02 kg/m2. The sample was divided into two groups as follows: ASD group (ASDG; n=15) and ID group (IDG, n=14). The selected tests used to measure gross motor function (GMF, locomotion and object control skills) and health fitness (body composition, flexibility, strength, muscle endurance, and cardiopulmonary endurance) were also used in previous studies. The GMF and health fitness between ASDG and IDG showed no significant differences. This study indicates that exercise programs could provide similar effects, even with other disorder types having similar symptoms.

Conceptualising and testing the relationship between actual and perceived motor performance: A cross-cultural comparison in children from Australia and Germany

ABSTRACT Previous studies investigating the relationship between motor skill, physical activity and fitness in children have not thoroughly considered the role of self-perception. Therefore, the study aim was to test a theoretical framework, which considered both actual and perceived motor skill as well as actual and perceived fitness. Potential moderating effects of sex and country were considered. Data on motor skill, fitness, as well as self-perception of motor skill and fitness were collected from 145 Australian children and 214 German children (age range 7 to 10 years). For actual motor skill and fitness, mean differences for sex, age and country were found. For perceived motor performance (perceived motor skill and perceived fitness) no mean differences were found for age. Path analyses were performed. The final model showed significant relations between actual performance (object control skill, fitness) and perceived performance (object control skill, fitness). All model paths had low to moderate regression weights with the lowest relationship reported between actual and perceived fitness. Sex and country showed no effects. This integrated approach has led to a better understanding of the relationship between children’s perceived and objective performance, and cultural differences within them.

Twenty-four-hour movement behaviours and fundamental movement skills in preschool children: A compositional and isotemporal substitution analysis

ABSTRACT Studies that have analysed the association between the different movement behaviours and fundamental movement skills (FMS) have considered it in an independent manner, disregarding the compositional nature of 24-h movement behaviours (24-h MB). The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between the 24-h MB and FMS in preschoolers using a compositional data analysis . Two hundred and four preschoolers (4.5 ± 0.8 years old; 101 boys) provided objectively assessed physical activity (PA) and sedentary behaviour (SB) data (Actigraph wGT3X), and FMS (TGMD-2). Sleep duration (SD) was reported by parents. Association of daily composition of movement behaviours with FMS was explored using compositional analysis and isotemporal substitution (R Core Team, 3.6.1). When considered as a 24-h MB composition (PA, SB and SD), adjusted for age, BMI and sex, the composition predicted locomotor (r2 = 0.31), object control (r2 = 0.19), and total motor score (r2 = 0.35), respectively (all P < 0.001). Reallocation of time from light to moderate-to-vigorous PA was associated with greatest positive changes in total motor score. Achieving adequate balance between movement behaviours over the 24-h period, and its relationship with locomotor and object control skills should be considered and further investigated in early childhood.

Are BMI, Self-Perceptions, Motor Competence, Engagement, and Fitness Related to Physical Activity in Physical Education Lessons?

Higher levels of actual and perceived motor competence are purported to lead to participation in physical activity (PA). Whereas considerable work has been published regarding motor and perceived competence and body mass index (BMI), much less is known about the association of these variables considering PA and engagement in physical education settings-the focus of the present study. In 600 children (aged 3-10 y), PA during physical education lessons, locomotor skills, object control skills, perceived competence, and BMI (study 1) were assessed. In a subsample of 149 children, PA, engagement, and health-related fitness were assessed (study 2). Structural equation model showed that in study 1, locomotor skills were the strongest variable in the early years, and object control skills were the strongest later, in explained PA. The regression analysis, in study 2, showed that BMI, object control skills, and engagement were significantly associated with PA and that appropriate motor engagement was the best predictor of PA. The authors extended previous research by providing evidence that motor competence varies across childhood in explaining participation in PA, and appropriate motor engagement plays a critical role in being active during lessons and was the strongest predictor of PA. BMI and self-perception were not significant in the models.

Relationship between Fundamental Movement Skills and Physical Activity in Preschool-Aged Children: A Systematic Review.

Preschool-aged children are in a critical period of developing fundamental movement skills (FMS). FMS have a close link with physical activity (PA). This study aimed to systematically review the associations between FMS and PA in preschool-aged children. Searching Cochrane Library, Web of Science, PubMed, ScienceDirect, and EBSCO (including SPORTDiscus, ERIC, and Academic Search Premier) was utilized to conduct a systematic review of the available literature. Studies were included if they examined associations between FMS and PA among typically developing children aged 3–6 years, published between January 2000 and April 2020. A total of 26 studies met the inclusion criteria, including 24 cross-sectional studies and two cohort studies. There was a strong level of evidence to support low to moderate associations between moderate to vigorous physical activity and components of FMS, specifically, the total FMS (r = 0.11–0.48, R2 = 16%–19%) and object control skill (r = 0.16–0.46, β = 0.28–0.49, R2 = 10.4%–16.9%). Similar associations were also found between the total physical activity and components of FMS, specifically, the total FMS (r = 0.10–0.45, R2 = 16%), locomotor skills (r = 0.14–0.46, R2 = 21.3%), and objective control skills (r = 0.16–0.44, β = 0.47, R2 = 19.2%). There was strong evidence that there is no significant association between light physical activity and FMS, specifically, total FMS and locomotor skills. The associations, including “stability skills–PA” and “locomotor skills–moderate to vigorous PA”, were uncertain due to insufficient evidence. Our findings provide strong evidence of associations between specific FMS components and a specific PA intensity. Future studies should consider using a longitudinal study design in order to explore the causal relationship between specific-intensity PA and the FMS subdomain.

Accessing Physical Activity and Health Disparities among Underserved Hispanic Children: The Role of Actual and Perceived Motor Competence.

Promoting physical activity (PA) and eliminating health disparities among underserved minority children is a public health priority. The main purpose of this study was to examine the relationship of actual motor competence (a set of object control skills) and perceived motor competence with PA participation and health-related quality of life (HRQoL) among underserved Hispanic children who were born in the U.S. Guided by Stodden et al.’s conceptual model, we tested the direct and indirect effects (mediational model) of actual motor competence on health-related outcomes (PA and HRQoL) through perceived motor competence. Participants were 215 underserved Hispanic children (Mage = 10.55 years, SD = 0.53 [age range 10–12]; 51.6% boys), recruited from four elementary schools in the southwestern U.S., who completed validated questionnaires assessing their perceived motor competence, PA, and HRQoL. Their actual motor skills were assessed using PE MetricsTM. After examining the associations among the variables, we tested the hypothesized model using structural equation modeling (SEM; AMOS 25). The hypothesized model indicated a good fit (χ²/df = 38.427/24 = 1.60 < 5; non-normed fit index (NFI) = 0.93; comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.968; root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.053 [0.016, 0.083]). The effect of actual motor competence on PA and HRQoL was fully mediated by perceived motor competence. The findings demonstrated the mediating role of perceived motor competence between actual motor competence and health-related outcomes (PA and HRQoL) among underserved Hispanic children. The results highlight that actual motor competence significantly predicted underserved Hispanic children’ perceived motor competence, which in turn positively predicted their PA and HRQoL. These findings have significant practical implications for future intervention strategies of randomized clinical trials in schools aimed at promoting PA and HRQoL and eliminating health disparities among underserved Hispanic children.

Comparability of the Test of Gross Motor Development–Second Edition and the Test of Gross Motor Development–Third Edition

When a test is revised, it is important that test users are made aware of the comparability of scores of the new and the original test. We examined how scores on the Test of Gross Motor Development–Second Edition (TGMD-2) and Test of Gross Motor Development–Third Edition (TGMD-3) compared among children in middle childhood. Participants were 270 children recruited in grade 3 (54% female; Mage = 8 years 6 months) and followed through grade 5. Participants completed the skills of both tests. Subtest scores were converted into percent of maximum possible (POMP) scores to facilitate comparison. Although similar, uniformly the TGMD-3 POMP scores were slightly lower. Repeated measures analyses of variance revealed that locomotor subtest scores derived from both tests improved from grade 3 to grade 5, as did TGMD-3 assessed ball skills. However, there was no difference in TGMD-2 assessed object control skills over time. It appears that under-contribution by the underhand roll suppressed the trajectory of improvement of TGMD-2 assessed object control skills. This finding supports the exclusion of the roll from the TGMD-3. The consistent pattern of sex-based differences in TGMD-2 object control skill and TGMD-3 ball skills reinforces the need for male and female norm-reference data for ball skills.