Object Control Skills Research Articles

The relationship between fundamental motor skills and physical fitness in preschoolers: a short-term longitudinal study.

Physical fitness and fundamental motor skills are two important aspects for the healthy development of preschoolers. Despite the growing interest in clarifying their relationship, the scarcity of longitudinal studies prevents us from understanding causality. This study employed a cross-lagged model with two time points to investigate the bidirectional relationship between these two aspects. A total of 174 preschoolers (54.0% girls) from 3 to 6 years old (M = 3.96 ± 0.47) were surveyed, they were recruited by convenience from two kindergartens in Beijing, China, and their physical fitness (via CNPFDSM-EC) and fundamental motor skills (via TGMD-3) were tracked over a period of 6 months. The findings revealed a bidirectional predictive effect. The predictive strength of flexibility was found to be lower than other physical fitness aspects, while locomotor skills demonstrated a higher predictive strength than object control skills. This study indicates that physical fitness and fundamental motor skills mutually enhance each other in young children, and both should be emphasized in preschool sports education.

The effect of 12 weeks brain jogging based learning models to improve gross motor skill: object control skill in elementary school

The motor skills of children can be used to determine whether or not the child's growth and development is impaired. The aim of the study to know the effect of brain jogging based learning model improving the object control skills of elementary school students. This study was conducted using an experimental method with two groups, namely control and intervention. In comparison to traditional learning models (direct instruction), the brain jogging based learning model. This study's sample consisted of the total number of students in the subject is 60. Classes 4A and 4B have similar characteristics (age, average height/weight, sports learning material, duration, and time of sports learning implementation).Data processing was conducted using SPSS IBM 26. The mean difference in the post-test result between the control and experimental group was based on the significance of the SPSS output(p<0.05). Based on the output in the Independent sample t test it is known that the value of two hand striking a stationary is 0.039 < 0.05; forehand strike of 0.009 < 0.05; one hand stationary dribble of 0.039 < 0.05; d two hand catch of 0.000 < 0.05; kick a stationary ball of 0.004 < 0.05; overhand throw of 0.002 < 0.05; underhand roll of 0.020 < 0.05. There is a significant influence statistical analysis on two hand striking stationary, forehand strike, one hand stationary dribble, two hand catch, kick a stationary ball, overhand throw, and underhand roll ability for elementary school with the Brain jogging based learning model can be one solution to improve the performance of object control skill. Key words: Brain Jogging, Learning Model, Object Control Skill, Gross motor.

O.6.1-5 Potential moderators of the association between fundamental movement skills and academic attainment of adolescents: a path analysis

Abstract Purpose Fundamental movement skills (FMS) provide a crucial foundation for the development of complex movement patterns involved in physical activity and sport. Further, FMS and skill acquisition are proposed to have a moderating influence on the association between physical activity and cognitive stimulation. Despite this, there remains scant literature investigating this relationship in adolescents. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to identify the association between object control and locomotor skills and subject-specific academic attainment in adolescents, and to ascertain whether this association is moderated by perceived sports competence, sex, weight status and/or maturational status. Methods FMS were assessed in 140 children (70 girls; 12.8±1.9 years) using the Test of Gross Motor Development V.3 (TGMD-3). Numeracy reasoning, numeracy procedural and reading were determined using standardised national assessments and potential moderating variables (perceived sports competence [Children and Youth Physical self-perception profile – Youth], Body Mass Index (BMI) z-scores, and biological maturity [predicted age at peak height velocity]) were recorded. Path analysis was performed using maximum likelihood estimation to analyse the hypothesised direct and moderated associations between FMS and each aspect of academic attainment, whilst controlling for age and sex. The moderating role of sex was subsequently assessed using multi-group analysis and comparing a fully-constrained model. The moderating effects of perceived sports competence, BMI z-score and biological maturity were analysed using the interaction-moderation approach. Results Path analysis revealed a significant association between object-control skill competence and both numeracy procedural (β=0.33; p = <0.001) and numeracy reasoning (β=0.29; p = <0.001). In contrast, there was no association between locomotor skills and any parameter of academic attainment. Perceived sports competence moderated the association between object-control skills and numeracy procedural (β=0.16; p = 0.045) and reading (β=0.25; p = 0.003), while BMI z-score moderated the association between object control skills and numeracy reasoning (β=0.17; p = 0.048). Conclusions These results highlight the importance of object-control skills for cognitive development in adolescents. The continued development of FMS, specifically object-control skills, within cognitively-enriched experiences should be a key strategic aim in the curriculum. These findings are imperative for school buy-in for school-based physical activity promoting interventions.

O.4.6-10 Move! – A national monitoring system for health-related fitness and motor competence of Finnish school-aged children and adolescents

Abstract Purpose The Move! system was launched in 2016 and it aims to provide systematic feedback to students on their physical performance, and to collect annual nationwide data on physical performance from 5th and 8th grade students (11–15 years old). The physical performance in the Move! system has been operationalized to include components of health-related fitness and motor competence, which are ideally needed during adolescence and later in life. Project description The Move! is included in the national core curriculum for physical education (PE) and is therefore targeted for all students. Move! measurements include 20m shuttle run (endurance), 5-leaps (strength of the lower body, locomotor skills, stability skills), throwing-catching combination (object control skills), curl-up (endurance of abdominal muscles), push-up (endurance of upper body muscles), and flexibility tests. The Move! results are used extensively. In schools, PE teachers give immediate feedback to students during and after test sessions. In addition, teachers can utilize Move! data when designing PE programs and lessons. Students’ results are sent home, and parents are encouraged to discuss the results and their implications with their children. Students and their parents are directed to the Move! web pages, where they are provided with more information about the tests along with guidance on how to develop different elements of physical performance. The results are also utilized in healthcare as school nurses and doctors consider students’ physical performance information along with other health data. Through a database, it is possible to follow students’ physical performance development. The data can also be used in informed decision-making at national and local levels. Conclusions The Move! system annually reaches a vast majority of Finnish grade 5 and 8 students (>100 000), schools (>2000), and municipalities (>95 %). The system ties together school PE, health care, and data-informed decision-making, and can be seen as a pedagogical innovation enhancing Finnish students’ health-related fitness, physical activity, and overall well-being.

O.4.2-5 An eight-week pa intervention improves FMS & self efficacy in children with underlying conditions

Abstract Purpose To evaluate the effectiveness of the “FunFit” pilot intervention, designed to support children awaiting a therapy service within the Irish health system to increase their physical activity (PA) levels and improve fundamental movement skills (FMS). FunFit aims to provide children with a positive experience of PA in a non-competitive, community-based environment. This is a novel collaborative intervention approach for children with underlying conditions in Ireland. Methods A total of 14 children (8 male, 6 female) aged 8-12 years (mean age: 9.19 ± 1.03) participated in the eight-week intervention. Trained exercise professionals delivered 1-hour PA classes each week. Pre and post intervention, a PA questionnaire assessed self-efficacy, enjoyment of PA and days of PA per week. 12 FMS (6 locomotor & 6 object control) skills were assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development – 2 (TGMD-2). Paired T-Tests and Wilcoxon Signed Rank Tests were conducted to analyse improvements. Results Nearly all (91.67%) children (N = 13) did not meet the recommended levels of PA before, or after, the intervention and PA levels remained low post intervention (mean days of PA per week: 4.33 ± 1.55). Yet, improvements in overall total locomotor (P = 0.012, effect size (ES) = 0.589), total object control (P = 0.034, ES = 0.499) and total FMS (P = 0.008, ES = 0.629), were evident after the intervention. A positive improvement in enjoyment of PA (P = 0.014, ES = 0.502), and in self efficacy (P = 0.035, ES = 0.430), were also reported after the intervention. Conclusions An eight-week PA intervention for children with underlying conditions did not result in children reaching recommended levels of PA. Yet, improvements in FMS, self-efficacy and enjoyment of PA were evident. This evidence suggests that a focus away from PA levels in interventions is needed with these individuals; and instead, providing an intervention that promotes enjoyment of PA in a non-competitive environment in the community setting could be more effective. By doing so, children could be supported in developing their FMS, which may then have a positive knock-on effect on their PA levels over a longer time period.

S12-4 Feasibility evaluation of the Move Well, Feel Good movement behaviours intervention

Abstract Purpose Improving children’s motor competence through school-based physical activity interventions may be a mechanism for promoting positive mental health through psychosocial factors. Move Well, Feel Good (MWFG) is a such an intervention that was co-designed with children, class teachers, physical education (PE) teachers, and school leaders. This presentation describes the feasibility evaluation of MWFG. Methods Five primary schools were recruited from a low socioeconomic status community in northwest England. A 10-week intervention was co-designed which aimed to enhance children’s mental health through motor competence and psychosocial development. The core delivery of the programme involved one PE lesson per week devoted to development of locomotor, object control, and stability skills. This was supplemented by optional recess and home activities, and by non-PE curricular activities. Teachers were asked to record details of each MWFG session taught, and feasibility was evaluated against pre-defined criteria using surveys, interviews (teachers), and participatory focus groups (children). Pre- and post-intervention assessments of motor competence, mental health, wellbeing, psychosocial factors, and 24-hour movement behaviours were also completed. Results The 5 schools represented 83% of the target number of schools and 108 children consented (43% of target). PE and class teachers were recruited in all schools (100% of target). Intervention dose was reflected by 76% of scheduled PE lessons being delivered. Adherence was strong with >85% of children attending ≥75% of lessons. Positive indicators of acceptability were provided by 86% of children, 83% of PE teachers, and 90% of class teachers. Teachers commented on the children’s positive engagement irrespective of ability, the quality of resources provided, and the challenges of competing demands for curriculum time and spaces to deliver MWFG. The data collection methods were deemed acceptable by 91% of children and 80% of class teachers, and children spoke positively about participating in the data collection. Secondary outcome data collection was completed by 87%-100% of children, with a 0%-6% attrition rate at post-intervention. Descriptive analysis revealed favourable changes in motor competence and mental health. Conclusions MWFG was deemed to be feasible to develop further into a pilot trial, with improved school and child recruitment strategies warranted.

어머니와 교사가 평정한 유아의 주도성과 자기통제가 운동발달에 미치는 영향

Objectives The study noted the importance of child motor development, confirming the impact of mother-reported and teacher-reported child initiative and self-regulation on the children’s motor development.
 Methods For 278 children, motor development was measured using the Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD-II), and child initiative and self-regulation data were collected from 278 mothers and 14 teachers using the Devereux Early Childhood Assessment questionnaire.
 Results There was a difference in child motor development according to the level of initiative and self-regulation. The higher the mother evaluates her child's self-regulation, the higher the teacher evaluates the child's initiative, the better the child's locomotion skills were. With this, the higher the mother and teacher assess the child's self- regulation, the higher the teacher assessed the child's initiative, the better the child's object-control skills were.
 Conclusions The results of this study provide examples of whole child by empirically illustrate the relationship between social emotional development and physical motor development.

Exploring the Influence of Parental Literacy Status on the Implementation of Dance Movement Therapy for Motor Skill Development in Children with Intellectual Disability in India

This paper focuses on examining the influence of parental literacy status in the implementation of Dance Movement Therapy (DMT) for the development of motor skills in children with intellectual disabilities in India. The study aims to explore the potential impact of parental literacy on engagement, participation, and outcomes of DMT interventions, ultimately informing strategies to optimize therapy effectiveness. The research incorporates the use of the Behavioral Assessment Scales for Indian Children with Mental Retardation (Basic-MR, Part A) to assess the impact of parental literacy on the outcomes of DMT interventions.
 Literacy status of parents, particularly in low- and middle-income countries like India, can significantly affect various aspects of a child's development, including their access to education, healthcare, and therapies. However, there is limited research exploring the specific role of parental literacy in the context of DMT interventions for children with intellectual disabilities in India.
 This study adopts a mixed-methods research design, combining quantitative measurements and qualitative insights. A sample of children with intellectual disabilities, aged between 7 and 15 years, will be recruited from special education schools from Odisha, India. The DMT intervention will be carried out over a designated period, with trained dance movement therapists tailoring the sessions to meet the individual needs and abilities of the children. The impact of the intervention will be evaluated using the Behavioral Assessment Scales for Indian Children with Mental Retardation (Basic-MR, Part A), which provides a comprehensive assessment of motor skills including locomotor and object control skills. Quantitative data, including pre- and post-intervention assessments, will be analyzed to determine the influence of parental literacy on motor skill development outcomes.
 This study aims to enhance our understanding of how parental literacy status influences the implementation of DMT and motor skill development in children with intellectual disabilities in India. By recognizing the impact of parental literacy and addressing potential challenges, the study aims to optimize the effectiveness of DMT interventions for children with intellectual disabilities. The findings will have practical implications for therapists, educators, policymakers, and other stakeholders involved in culturally sensitive intervention programs, promoting comprehensive motor skill development in children with intellectual disabilities in India.

The Relationship Between Early Childhood Teachers’ Professional Development in Physical Education and Children’s Fundamental Movement Skills

ABSTRACT Research Findings: The influence of early childhood teachers’ professional development on fundamental movement skills remains unknown in the literature. The purpose of the present study was to examine how early childhood teachers’ professional development in physical education (PE) contributes to predicting children’s fundamental movement skills. For this purpose, sixty early childhood teachers from Spain completed the Questionnaire Professional Development in Infant PE (QPD-IPE) to assess the teachers’ professional development concerning PE. The Test of Gross Motor Development-2 was applied to evaluate the fundamental movement skills of their children (N = 300). Two separate hierarchical linear regressions were conducted to examine the effect of teachers’ professional development in PE on locomotor and object control skills. The results illustrated that 18% of the variance in locomotor skills was predicted by minutes of PE, training and professional development, and external perception. Additionally, 22% of the variance in object control was predicted by minutes of PE, training and professional development, personal perspective, and years of teaching experience. Age and sex were controlled for in both models. Practice or Policy: Early teachers’ professional development should receive attention to support preschoolers’ fundamental movement skills.

Reliability and validity of the Körperkoordinationstest Für Kinder in Chinese children.

The Körperkoordinationstest Für Kinder (KTK) is a reliable and low-cost motor coordination test tool that has been used in several countries. However, whether the KTK is a reliable and valid instrument for use in Chinese children has not been assessed. Additionally, because the KTK was designed to incorporate locomotor, object control, and stability skills, and there is a lack of measurement tools that include stability skills assessment for Chinese children, the KTK's value and validity are worth discussing. A total of 249 primary school children (131 boys; 118 girls) aged 9-10 years from Shanghai were recruited in this study. Against the Test of Gross Motor Development-3 (TGMD-3), the concurrent validity of the KTK was assessed. We also tested the retest reliability and internal consistency of the KTK. The test-retest reliability of the KTK was excellent (overall: r = 0.951; balancing backwards: r = 0.869; hopping for height: r = 0.918; jumping sideways: r = 0.877; moving sideways: r = 0.647). Except for the boys, the internal consistency of the KTK was higher than the acceptable level of Cronbach's α > 0.60 (overall: α = 0.618; boys: α = 0.583; girls: α = 0.664). Acceptable concurrent validity was found between the total scores for the KTK and TGMD-3 (overall: r = 0.420, p < 0.001; boys: r = 0.411, p < 0.001; girls: r = 0.437, p < 0.001). The KTK is a reliable instrument for assessing the motor coordination of children in China. As such, the KTK can be used to monitor the level of motor coordination in Chinese children.

A scalable school-based intervention to increase early adolescents' motor competence and health-related fitness.

Schools are key settings for the promotion of students' physical activity, fitness, and motor competence. The purpose of our study was to investigate the efficacy of a 5-month-long intervention program that aimed to increase students' motor competence and health-related fitness during school days. We conducted a quasi-experimental study with 325 Finnish Grade 5 (Mage = 11.26, SD = 0.33) students from five schools. Two schools were allocated to the intervention group and three schools to the control group. The intervention consisted of three components: (a) weekly 20 min session during regular PE lessons, (b) weekly 20 min session during recess, and (c) daily 5-minute-long classroom activity breaks. All activities were designed to systematically develop different elements of motor competence and fitness. The following assessments were conducted at baseline and 5-months: cardiorespiratory fitness levels were measured by 20-meter shuttle run test, muscular fitness by curl-up and push-up tests, and motor competence by 5-leaps and throwing-catching combination tests. We analyzed the data using a multi-group latent change score modeling. Results showed that students in the intervention group developed significantly better in 20-meter shuttle run test (β = 0.269, p = 0.000, 95% CI [0.141, 0.397]; +5.0 laps), push-up (β = 0.442, p = 0.000, 95% CI [0.267, 0.617]; +6.5 repetitions), curl-up (β = 0.353, p = 0.001, 95% CI [0.154, 0.552]; +7.8 repetitions), and throwing-catching combination tests (β = 0.195, p = 0.019, 95% CI [0.033, 0.356]; +1.1 repetitions) than students in the control group. The intervention program appeared to be feasible and effective in increasing students' cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular fitness, and object control skills. This indicates that guided school-based physical activity programs can be influential in promoting physical fitness and motor competence among early adolescent students.

Associations of gross motor skills with self-regulation and executive function in preschool-aged children

This study aimed to examine associations between gross motor skills and executive functions (EF) in a large sample of Australian preschool-aged children. Of 566 children (mean age = 3.2 ± 0.4 years, 51.2% girls), locomotor, object control, and total skill competence were significantly associated with visual spatial working memory and inhibition ( p &lt; 0.05). Total skill competence was associated with shifting and locomotor skills were significantly associated with self-regulation ( p &lt; 0.05). Static balance was significantly associated with inhibition and shifting ( p &lt; 0.05). In boys, an association between object control skills and visual spatial working memory was observed. In girls, an association between static balance and visual spatial working memory, phonological working memory, and shifting was observed. The identification of significant associations between gross motor skills and different EFs is an important contribution to the growing evidence on the relationship between motor skills and EFs in early childhood.

Relationships between physical activity, fundamental motor skills, and body mass index in preschool children.

To investigate whether there is a potential relationship between physical activity (PA), fundamental motor skills (FMS), and Body Mass Index (BMI) in preschool children and to further explore the differences in PA and FMS between normal-weight and overweight/obese preschool children. Participants were 366 preschool children aged 3 to 6 years; 358 completed all tests (194 boys and 164 girls). PA, FMS, body weight, and height were measured by triaxial accelerometer, the Test of Gross Motor Development, Second Edition (TGMD-2), and anthropometry measurement, respectively. The overall rate of overweight/obesity was 17.0%, with no significant gender difference (χ 2 = 0.628, p = 0.428). Older children perform significantly better in both object control skills and locomotor skills. Independent samples t-tests were used to examine the difference between genders on FMS and PA: girls in the 5-year-old group display better locomotor skills (p = 0.012) than boys. Boys spent more time on moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and less time on sedentary activity when compared to girls. Results of partial correlation analysis showed that PA was significantly and positively correlated with both locomotor skills and object control skills in preschool children (p < 0.01), while there was no correlation between FMS, PA level, and BMI. Results of ANCOVA revealed no significant difference in FMS between normal-weight and overweight or obese preschool children; normal-weight girls had significantly longer MPA and MVPA duration and significantly shorter sedentary periods than overweight or obese girls (p < 0.05). Overweight/obesity in preschool children requires effective measures. PA is positively associated with FMS, while BMI is not potentially related to FMS or PA in preschool years. Overweight or obese girls should develop healthier weight status by increasing MVPA hours and reducing sedentary time.

Multivariate physical activity association patterns for fundamental motor skills and physical fitness in preschool children aged 3–5 years

ABSTRACT Physical activity (PA) is important for children’s development of fundamental motor skills (FMS) and physical fitness (FIT) but evidence regarding which intensities are associated with these outcomes in early childhood is limited. The aim of this study was to determine the cross-sectional multivariate PA intensity signatures associated with FMS and FIT in children aged 3–5 years. We used a sample of 952 Norwegian preschoolers (4.3 years, 51% boys) who provided data on PA (ActiGraph GT3X+), at least one FMS (locomotor, object control and/or balance skills) or FIT (speed agility, standing long jump, and/or handgrip strength) outcome, body mass index, and socioeconomic status in 2019–2020. We created 17 PA intensity variables (0–99 to ≥15000 counts per minute) from the vertical axis and used multivariate pattern analysis for analyses. The PA intensity spectrum (including sedentary time) was significantly associated with all outcomes. Associations for PA intensities were positive (negative for sedentary time), strongest for moderate and vigorous intensities, and were significant across sex and age groups. Our findings show that the PA intensity spectrum is associated with FMS and FIT in young children and that promotion of PA, in particular moderate- and vigorous-intensity activity, from an early age benefits children’s physical development.

Does Sedentary Behavior Predict Motor Competence in Young Children?

Background: Understanding how or whether sedentary behavior affects motor competence in young children is important considering that children spend a lot of time sedentary. The aim of this study was to examine whether sedentary behavior predicts motor competence in young children. Methods: A longitudinal study with a total of 372 children aged 3.5 years at baseline and 5 years at follow-up was conducted. Objectively measured activity patterns (i.e., using accelerometers) were conducted in a subsample with 188 children. Sedentary behavior was assessed both objectively and subjectively (parent-reported screen time). Locomotor and object control skill scores were determined using the Test of Gross Motor Development—Second Edition. A multivariable analysis was executed adjusting for potential confounders (such as age, sex, time spent in moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activity, monitor wear time, body mass index z scores, and maternal education). Results: Sedentary behavior at either time point was not significantly associated with either locomotor or object control skills after adjusting for potential confounders. Discussion: Our results did not support the assumption that sedentary behavior affects motor competence in young children. Regardless, given the lack of consistency in the evidence base, we recommend to parents, educators, and health professionals that sedentary activities should be kept within government recommendations due to potential negative effects on child development.

The relative age effect on fundamental movement skills in Chinese children aged 3–5 years

BackgroundThe cut-off date in the education system causes a relative age difference, with developmental advantages for children who are born on the “early side” of the cut-off date and disadvantages for those born later, which is known as the relative age effect (RAE). Very few studies have examined whether there is a RAE on the development of fundamental movement skills (FMSs) in preschool children, and no studies have been conducted in China. The purpose of this study is to identify whether a RAE exists on FMS in Chinese preschool children, comparing RAEs according to gender and age.MethodsFrom a total of 378 invited preschool children regularly registered at one Chinese kindergarten, a total of 288 healthy and typically developing preschoolers (4.33 ± 0.84 years-old; 56.6% boys) were included in this study. All children were required to take part in anthropometry and FMS assessments. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was applied to examine the difference in each of the FMS items across quarter categories, year and gender groups, controlling for body mass index (BMI).ResultsFor the overall sample, the data show the significant main effects on the quarter of birth factor in locomotor skills (LC; F (3, 265) = 2.811, p = 0.04, ηp2 = 0.031), object control skills (OB; F (3, 265) = 6.319, p = 0.04, ηp2 = 0.031), and total test score (TTS; F (3, 265) = 5.988, p = 0.001, ηp2 = 0.063). There were also significant differences in the age effect on all the domains of FMS (FLC (2, 265) = 100.654, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.432; FOB (2, 265) = 108.430, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.450; FTTS (2, 265) = 147.234, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.526) but a gender effect only in LC (F (1, 265) = 20.858; p < 0.001; ηp2 = 0.073). For gender and quarter of birth groups, RAEs in LC only exists in girls. Moreover, regarding age and quarter of birth factors, RAEs are only found at younger ages.ConclusionsThis study suggests the existence of RAEs in the FMS of Chinese preschool children. Teachers need to be aware of the effect of RAEs on the FMS when approaching development, evaluation, and teaching approaches in preschools.

The Effects of the Exercise Intervention on Fundamental Movement Skills in Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and/or Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Meta-Analysis

To explore the effect of exercise intervention on fundamental movement skills (FMS) of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and/or autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Following the principle of PICOS, randomized controlled trials of the effect of exercise intervention on the FMS of ADHD/ASD children were searched. A total of 12 articles and 396 participants were included. Review Manager5.4 and Stata16.0 software were used to process and analyze the data. The results revealed that (1) exercise intervention can improve the gross motor skills of children with ADHD/ASD (p &lt; 0.00001). Aquatic therapy (SMD = 56.54, 95% CI = 38.83–74.25) has a better effect on stability skills, and FMS intervention (SMD = 17.58, 95% CI = 1.78–33.38) has a better effect on locomotor skills and object control skills. (2) Exercise intervention can improve the fine motor skills of children with ADHD/ASD (p = 0.001). Table tennis exercise (SMD = 9.91, 95% CI = 0.23–19.59) and horse-riding program (SMD = 9.50, 95% CI = 5.20–13.80) have better effects on fine manual control and hand–eye coordination. (3) The closed-skill intervention for 60 min each time, twice a week, for at least 12 weeks had the best effect on the improvement in the FMS in children with ADHD/ASD (p &lt; 0.00001). Exercise intervention may effectively improve FMS in children with ADHD/ASD. Intervention form, time, frequency, and duration are important moderator variables that positively impact the FMS of children with ADHD/ASD.

No Motor Costs of Physical Education with Eduball

Numerous neuroscience studies demonstrate that when motor and cognitive tasks are performed simultaneously, there is dual-task interference. Experiments show that the cost is a temporal deterioration in motor functioning. However, there is no comprehensive research on the developmental costs of dual-task exercises incorporated into physical education (PE). Such an approach is called the interdisciplinary model of PE and is used to stimulate cognitive development. Therefore, there is a knowledge gap regarding the motor costs of methods based on this model, e.g., Eduball. The Eduball method integrates core academic subjects with PE using a set of educational balls printed with letters, numbers, and other signs. To fill this knowledge gap, we replicated the Eduball experiment, focusing on motor development. The half-year intervention occurred in one primary school class. The control group was a peer class participating in traditional PE, not based on dual tasks. We tested students' space-time orientation and graphomotor, locomotor, and object control skills. We found no motor costs of the intervention. Eduball-based PE stimulated motor development as much as traditional PE. Our study suggests that methods based on the interdisciplinary model of PE are safe for motor development. As such, it is worth considering their use in children's education.

Motor competence, physical activity, and perceived motor competence: A relational systems approach

ABSTRACT Being and perceiving oneself as proficient in motor skills seems essential for an active lifestyle; conversely, being active and perceiving oneself as proficient may be associated with greater motor competence. By expanding the causal path view about the relationship between active and healthy developmental system elements, this study tested the mediation hypothesis of perceived motor competence in the relationship between motor competence and physical activity – in both ways – and moderation by developmental phase and sex. This cross-sectional study sampled healthy schoolchildren (n = 379; 8.2 ± 1.7 years; 54.9% boys). Physical activity (questionnaire), motor competence (tests included locomotor and object control skills) and perception of motor competence (a pictorial scale) were assessed. Maximum likelihood structural equation models with fit statistics confirmed the mediation in both ways. Unexpectedly, the relationship between motor competence and physical activity was inverse. Sex was a moderating variable (boys). In a systemic relational paradigm of human development, perceived motor competence, motor competence, and physical activity interact in an active and healthy behavioural system, but the complexities of understanding how these elements relate to one another across childhood point to the need for future longitudinal studies.

How Does the Amount of a Physical Education Intervention Affect Gross Motor Coordination in Early Childhood?

Little is known about the dose-response of physical education interventions on motor coordination in preschoolers. Our aim was to investigate whether the development of motor skills changed depending on different amounts of a physical education program (PEP) in children aged 3-5 years. One hundred forty-five children were recruited from kindergartens and randomly divided into a control group (CG, n = 28), which did not perform any PEP, and two intervention groups, which performed 4 h/week (I1, n = 78) and 10 h/week (I2, n = 39) of a PEP for 16 weeks. Each lesson was set in the form of a programmed game in order to produce fun, thus increasing enthusiasm for participation. Before and after the intervention, locomotor and object control skills and the gross motor development quotient were assessed with the Italian version of the gross motor development test. Both intervention groups showed a significant increase in the motor skills compared with the control group. Moreover, the level of performance was significantly higher after 10 h/week compared to 4 h/week. These findings can be useful for standardizing PEPs in preschool settings so that they can be applied by teachers for planning effective programs for developing motor skills in early childhood.