Nutrient Outflow Research Articles

Soil Nutrient Inflow-Outflow Dynamics and Balance on Agricultural Cultivated Farms in Northern Ethiopia

Soil fertility is the controlling factor of agricultural production worldwide including Waghimera zone, Ethiopia. However, it has been diminished from time to time and leads to low crop yield. Measuring of soil nutrient inflow-outflow affords necessary information about the current nutrient status of the soils, and to take appropriate nutrient management practices. The study was conducted to estimate the full soil nutrient balance of cultivated farms in the northern, of Ethiopia, in the 2020/21 main season. Inflow and Outflow of N, P, and K into, and out of farms were measured through the interview, field measurement, laboratory analysis, USLE model, and pedo-transfer functions. The full N balance of barley, tef, and wheat were -66.7, -8.9, and -47.1 kg ha-1 yr-1, respectively. P full balance was -5.4, 1.4, and -1.9 kg ha-1 yr-1 for barley, tef, and wheat farms, respectively. Whereas, K balance was also -12.4, -3.3, and -6 kg ha-1 yr-1 for barley, tef, a nd wheat, respectively. The balance quantification was done by subtracting nutrient outflows from the inflows. The results revealed that N, P, and K had negative balances except for P in tef. Grain yield and crop residue removal were the major paths of nutrient loss. To sustain, and boost agricultural production, reversing the imbalance between inflows, and outflows is critically essential for the study area. The current highly depleted nutrient should be corrected by adding sufficient organic, and inorganic nutrient sources, like in situ manuring, biochar, green manure, and remaining crop residue in the fields.

Assessing SWAT+ Performance in Simulating Drainage Water Management and Parameter Transferability for Watershed-Scale Applications

Drainage Water Management (DWM) is widely implemented to mitigate nutrient outflow from tile-drained croplands. However, the performance of process-based hydrological models in simulating DWM remains untested. This study aimed to assess the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT+) in simulating daily tile flow for a paired DWM field site in eastern South Dakota. Additionally, it sought to develop a method for determining the transferability of field-scale model parameterization to the surrounding watershed. Field-scale SWAT+ yielded satisfactory results during the calibration period (2016–2017) (East: NSE = 0.82, PBIAS = -26.8, RSR = 0.42; West: NSE = 0.75, PBIAS = -30.5, RSR = 0.5) and validation period (2018) (East: NSE = 0.71, PBIAS = -17, RSR = 0.55; West: NSE = 0.81, PBIAS = -4.6, RSR = 0.44) for each half of the experimental site. Further, ten-year SWAT+ simulations for the calibrated site showed an average annual reduction of 6.5 ± 1.7 mm in tile flow across the field due to DWM. Additionally, the study utilized remotely sensed Evapotranspiration to demonstrate that the calibrated site’s model parametrization could be transferred to only 28 % to 46 % of surrounding croplands each year. Overall, the implications of the study extend beyond South Dakota, making the proposed research applicable to other geographical regions with tiled croplands as well.

Spatial and Temporal Changes in Nutrient Source Contribution in a Lowland Catchment Within the Baltic Sea Region Under Climate Change Scenarios

AbstractCurrently, climate change is considered as an important factor affecting nutrient loads introduced through riverine systems into the Baltic Sea. Although the prospect of a large increase in pollution has long seemed very real, it still does not translate into planning of effective remedial actions. One of the factors limiting the development of such activities is the scale of simulations, focusing generally on catchment outlet profiles. To fill this gap and enable a step forward in understanding responses toward future predictions in a higher resolution scale (subcatchment), we assessed nutrient load contribution using calculation profiles localized along a main watercourse and its tributaries. To track spatial and seasonal changes of total nitrogen and phosphorus for the Wełna River (central Poland), we used climate change data and the SWAT model. Having at our disposal a catchment model with a good performance we could follow not only total load changes in particular subcatchments, but also track localization of the pollution sources and their direct impact on load estimations. Our results showed an increase of the loads, especially from the agricultural land use type, up to 34% for TN and 85% for TP, in the most extreme scenario. Moreover, forest areas have been noted as highly reactive to climate change, and through their localisation are able to distinctly alter nutrient outflow. Finally, the contribution of urban areas should be further investigated since the dynamics of nitrogen and phosphorus release from impervious surfaces is noticeably different here than from the other diffuse sources.

Plant Decellularization by Chemical and Physical Methods for Regenerative Medicine: A Review Article.

Fabricating three-dimensional (3D) scaffolds is attractive due to various advantages for tissue engineering, such as cell migration, proliferation, and adhesion. Since cell growth depends on transmitting nutrients and cell residues, naturally vascularized scaffolds are superior for tissue engineering. Vascular passages help the inflow and outflow of liquids, nutrients, and waste disposal from the scaffold and cell growth. Porous scaffolds can be prepared by plant tissue decellularization which allows for the cultivation of various cell lines depending on the intended application. To this end, researchers decellularize plant tissues by specific chemical and physical methods. Researchers use plant parts depending on their needs, for example, decellularizing the leaves, stems, and fruits. Plant tissue scaffolds are advantageous for regenerative medicine, wound healing, and bioprinting. Studies have examined various plants such as vegetables and fruits such as orchid, parsley, spinach, celery, carrot, and apple using various materials and techniques such as sodium dodecyl sulfate, Triton X-100, peracetic acid, deoxyribonuclease, and ribonuclease with varying percentages, as well as mechanical and physical techniques like freeze-thaw cycles. The process of data selection, retrieval, and extraction in this review relied on scholarly journal publications and other relevant papers related to the subject of decellularization, with a specific emphasis on plant-based research. The obtained results indicate that, owing to the cellulosic structure and vascular nature of the decellularized plants and their favorable hydrophilic and biological properties, they have the potential to serve as biological materials and natural scaffolds for the development of 3D-printing inks and scaffolds for tissue engineering.

Unveiling the inherent physical-chemical dynamics: Direct measurements of hydrothermal fluid flow, heat, and nutrient outflow at the Tagoro submarine volcano (Canary Islands, Spain)

Tagoro is one of the few submarine volcanoes in the world that has been monitored since its early eruptive stage in 2011 to present day. After six multidisciplinary oceanographic cruises conducted between 2014 and 2023 to gather a comprehensive dataset of georeferenced video-imagery and in situ measurements of hydrothermal flow velocities and hydrothermal fluid samples, we provide a robust characterization of the ongoing hydrothermal fluid velocity, heat flux, and nutrient release, along with an accurate delimitation of the hydrothermal field area. Our results reveal that Tagoro hydrothermal system extends from the main hydrothermal crater up to the summit, covering an area of 7600 m2. This hydrothermal field comprises thousands of small individual vents, displaying diverse morphologies such as crevices and delicate chimney-like structures, irregularly scattered across the dominant diffuse venting surface. Hydrothermal fluid temperatures and velocities at the substratum level reveal a clustered spatial distribution, ranging from 21.0 to 33.3 °C and 1.6–26.8 cm min−1, respectively. Furthermore, our findings indicate a discernible correlation between hydrothermal fluid temperature and vent density, while significant differences were observed between velocities from diffuse and focused areas. Additionally, heat fluxes exceed 200 MW across the entire active region, with heat flux values ranging from 6.06 to 146.87 kW m−2 and dissolve inorganic nutrient concentrations exhibit significant enrichments, comparable to the magnitude of important nutrient sources in the area as upwelling systems or mesoscale structures.

Uticaj kompleksnog đubriva APAVIVA NPK (S) 15:15:15(10) na prinos i biometrijske parametre zelene salate endivije (Cichorium endivia L.)

The effect of the complex fertilizer APAVIVA NPK(S) 15:15:15(10) on the yield and biometric parameters of various varieties of endive lettuce (Cichorium endivia L.) was studied in controlled conditions of a pot experiment. The phytolaboratory maintained optimal temperature, humidity and lighting. UnionPowerStar-40W-T lamps were used in the experiment, diode wavelength: blue (450 nm), red (660 nm). Daylight hours were 15 hours (from 7-00 to 22-00). The application of APAVIVA led to an increase in plant height, leaf rosette diameter, number of leaves and their assimilation surface. The use of mineral fertilizer led to an increase in plant productivity. However, increased mineral nutrition contributed to an accelerated transition to the generative phase of plant development, the formation of flowering shoots and the outflow of nutrients from the leaves to the stem. This had a negative impact on the yield of marketable products - chicory lettuce leaves. The addition of lime material (dolomite flour) together with mineral fertilizer increased plant productivity as well as helped to inhibit the accelerated transition to the generative phase and increase the yield of leaf mass.

Method of millet seeds harvesting (Panicum virgatum L.)

The article presents the results of research on the effectiveness of different methods of harvesting rodshaped millet seeds – separate and direct. In particular, a separate method with maturation and drying of seeds on mown plants and a direct method with maturation and drying of threshed seeds immediately after mowing. An important element of seed harvesting technology is the determination of the optimal timing of mowing plants. It was founded that the optimal method of millet seeds harvesting is the separate method, in which the quality of seeds significantly increases regardless of the timing of mowing the seed heads into a swath at panicle browning from 75 % – the beginning of mowing to 100 % – the end of mowing. With the separate method of harvesting, both when browning 50 % of the panicle, the energy of germination, seed germination, and the weight of 1000 seeds probably increased by 5 %, 4 %, and 0.17 g respectively, and when browning 75–100 % of the panicle, compared to the direct method collection. The improvement of seed quality with the separate harvesting method, when the seeds ripen and dry on mowed plants, is due to the outflow of nutrients from the plant to the seeds, which is not the case with the direct harvesting method, where the seeds ripen and dry in the piles immediately after threshing. The quality of seeds was significantly affected by the timing of mowing of the seed bins in both the separate and direct harvesting methods. In particular, with the direct method of harvesting and browning of the panicle at 100 %, germination energy and germination rate increased by 6 %, and the weight of 1000 seeds – by 0.25 g, compared to the mowing time with the panicle browning at 50 %. This method of collecting millet seeds harvesting is not energy-intensive and can be used in seed farms that grow seeds of the crop. In order to obtain high-quality millet seeds, it is advisable to harvest the seeds separately, mowing the seed heads in a swath with panicle browning is from 75 % (beginning of mowing) to 100 % (end of mowing), ripening the seeds on the mown plants and then thresh them. The direct harvesting method significantly reduces seed quality. Key words: panicle browning, separation method, germination energy, germination, weight of 1000 seeds.

Controlled Drainage Effectiveness in Reducing Nutrient Outflow in Light of Climate Changes

This modeling study focused on the hydrological and water quality effects of controlled drainage (CD) when operated using a subsurface drainage system in an agricultural field in the Wielkopolska region. The DRAINMOD hydrologic model was well calibrated and validated in an experimental field. This model was used in the performance of CD and free drainage (FD) combinations (108 and 27, respectively) in a near-future climate change scenario. The objective was to understand the potential of CD on the groundwater table (GWT), drainage outflow, surface runoff, and nitrogen and phosphorus reduction under projected climate conditions in Poland during the 21st century with shared socioeconomic pathway SSP370. The results indicated that the earliest start of CD practice is the most effective in increasing GWT. Compared to current climatic conditions, when applying CD on 1 March in the near future, with an initial GWT of 60 and 80 cm b.s.l. in wet years, drainage outflows will increase by 33% and 80% for the GFDL model, by 30% and 40% for the MPI model, and by 17% and 23% for the UKESM model. Comparing the surface runoff values obtained to current climate conditions, the MPI, GFDL, and UKESM models predict a significant increase in surface runoff in the near future, which is due to the predicted increase in precipitation. The annual NO3–N reduction was by 22, 19, and 15 kg per hectare for wet, normal, and dry years, respectively, in the near future. Among the climate scenarios, the UKESM model predicted higher NO3–N and PO4 leaching values compared to the MPI and GFDL models.

Carbonate budgets in Lakshadweep Archipelago bear the signature of local impacts and global climate disturbances

Predicted sea-level rise and increased storm frequency caused by climate change drastically threaten low-lying inhabited coral atolls. Coral reef frameworks are the atolls’ primary defence from these changes. The growth and integrity of these frameworks is reflected in their carbonate budgets, a dynamic balance between biogenic accretion through coral growth and erosional forces, both of which are affected by factors acting at different spatial scales. We explored how carbonate budgets, estimated using the ReefBudget methodology, vary between three inhabited atolls that face differing anthropogenic stressors in the Lakshadweep Archipelago in the Northern Indian Ocean. We surveyed ten reefs, at two depths each, across the three islands. Overall, net carbonate budgets of reefs across all atolls were below optimal production rates needed to continue protecting shorelines (5 G measured on healthy reefs). This was a result of repeated mass bleaching events as well as local impacts. Carbonate production was influenced by a recent mass bleaching event in 2016 and a cyclone in 2018, and varied between depths and exposures, potentially due to differential recovery and mortality dynamics. Erosional processes were locally mediated with both urchin and parrotfish density showing large differences between islands, possibly linked to nutrient outflow and fishing intensity. We also find that by the year 2100, a large proportion of shallow sites will experience an increase in water depth above half a metre under moderate and high emissions scenarios, but none will breach this threshold under a low emissions scenario. Our results show that patterns of carbonate production were largely mediated by the history of global/regional disturbances, while erosional rates were much more dependent on local factors.

Microwave heating instead of blanching to produce low-fat French fries

Blanching pretreatment is necessary for preparing French fries, but it causes water consumption and nutrient outflow. This work was aimed to investigate the effects of microwave (MW) pretreatment instead of blanching on the quality of fries, evaluated via changes to microstructure and crust characteristics. First, MW pretreatment could inactivate polyphenol oxidase in fresh-cut potato strips to inhibit enzymatic browning. Subsequently, the fries after proper MW pretreatment (60 s) had a golden appearance and better texture. As compared with the blanching process, the oil content of the fries obtained by MW pretreatment was decreased sharply from 41.3% to 18.1%. The results of scanning electron microscopy showed that MW pretreatment significantly altered the crust and internal microstructure of fries. Specially, it was found that the MW pretreatment made the fries form a thicker “protective crust” (1.81 μm), which was crucial to prevent oil adsorption during the frying and improve texture. Industrial relevanceBlanching is a traditional thermal processing technique that was once widely used in French fries around the world. However, blanching has some drawbacks, such as slow heat conduction, long processing time, substantial loss of soluble nutrients, massive water wastage, and even increased oil content of the fries. Meanwhile, MW heating is known for its high efficiency. The fries obtained with proper MW pretreatment are of good quality, but the oil content is drastically reduced compared to conventional blanching pretreatment. So, the above findings may provide helpful information to guide effective strategies for applying MW heating instead of blanching in the preparation of fried potato foods.

Decomposition of harvest residues and soil chemical properties in a Eucalyptus urophylla × grandis plantation under different residue management practices in southern China

Retained residues can return large amounts of nutrients to soil in high-intensity management eucalypt plantations, in which recycling of nutrients is critical for soil quality and forest sustainability. However, the effects of different residue treatments on eucalypt residue decomposition remain unclear. The aim in this study was to determine residue decomposition and nutrient release and soil chemical properties under different treatments of residues in a Eucalyptus urophylla × grandis plantation in southern China. Harvest residues were removed (RR), retained and spread evenly on the soil surface (ER), or retained but stacked into strips on the soil surface (SR). Decomposition of leaves was significantly faster than that of twigs and thick branches and was negatively correlated with initial carbon:nitrogen ratio. The loss of potassium was rapid, whereas losses of carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus were generally slow. Compared with SR, mass loss and nutrient release accelerated significantly in ER, with shorter half-lives of leaves, twigs, and thick branches. The lowest levels of soil nutrients were in RR, but there were no significant differences between ER and SR. Thus, in this study, residue decomposition was affected by residue type and residue treatment. Decomposition of residues affected soil nutrients by affecting nutrient outflow. In the ER treatment, residues accelerated nutrient cycling and facilitated the accumulation of soil organic carbon, but appropriate fertilization is still needed in E. urophylla × grandis plantations. However, future studies are required to determine whether changes in decomposition rate under different residue management practices lead to long-term changes in soil organic carbon content.

Vulnerability of the Small-Scale Fishery to Climate Changes in the Northern-Central Adriatic Sea (Mediterranean Sea)

Climate change is altering the functioning of ecosystems and species distribution worldwide, with negative impacts on human activities, including fisheries. The Adriatic Sea is an extremely productive area for fisheries, due to the strong outflow of nutrients from rivers and the periodic mixing of nutrients from the Mediterranean. However, the Adriatic Sea is also a semi-closed basin, where species do not have the ability to move to higher latitudes to avoid warming of the waters. Climate change acts on biodiversity in a variety of ways, such as causing changes in the trophic network—favoring the intake of thermophilic alien species, often in competition with local species—and altering the biological cycles of acclimatized marine species to temperate–cold climates. These problems become critical factors for the survival of species and for fisheries relying on these resources. Within this context, to have estimates of possible modifications of the nektonic community in the near future could be quite useful for preparing adaptation plans. In this paper, using Maximum Entropy models under RCP 4.5 and 8.5 scenarios, we estimated the future habitat suitability for a set of marine nektonic species of different thermal affinity (e.g., cold, temperate and warm species) within GSA17 (Northern and Central Adriatic Sea), among the most productive—and most exploited—areas of the Mediterranean Sea. This study shows how, at the current pace, climate change could modify marine ecosystems to the extent that future habitat suitability will decrease for nearly half of the species considered, with a decrease in landings from 13.5 to 86.9%, depending on the scenario. Only for the blue crab Callinectes sapidus has an increase in habitat suitability been observed. For most of the species considered, temperature was the most important variable to explain the probability of relative presence within the GSA17. On the other hand, GSA17 climatic conditions in the near future under the tested scenarios could become a suitable environment for tropical species, which could find here a suitable habitat, at least in terms of thermal features. Results of the present study can help the management of fishery resources and local markets in the near future, providing information to predict changes in the composition of the aquatic community and draw up management plans that take into account the effects of climate change.

Long-Term Nitrogen and Phosphorus Outflow from an Instream Constructed Wetland under Precipitation Variability

In many agricultural watersheds, surface runoff often causes unwanted nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) losses from croplands into stream networks. When this phenomenon is pronounced, it significantly changes N and P concentrations in streams affecting aquatic ecosystems. To protect stream water quality, the installation of instream-constructed wetlands (ICWs) for treating runoff water is often reported as a low-cost alternative to conventional water treatment systems. Indeed, ICWs have the capacity to collect and temporarily retain nutrients transported from agricultural landscapes and then slowly release them into downstream networks. However, the long-term hydrologic behavior of ICWs relative to N and P outflow control is still insufficiently reported. Especially in the context of climate change, it is relevant to investigate the effect of precipitation variability on ICWs N and P outflow. This study uses the soil and water assessment tool (SWAT) model to approximate the long-term hydrologic behavior of an experimental ICW installed in a small agricultural watershed. The model was set assuming a continuous corn and soybean rotation on croplands, then a multidecadal (period 2001–2020) simulation was used to evaluate the implication of precipitation variability on total nitrogen (TN), nitrate-N (NO3-N), total P (TP), and dissolved P (DP) outflows. Results show meaningful changes in the precipitation pattern with contrasting effects on N and P outflows. While analyses show significant trends in the maximum monthly precipitation, nutrient outflows during two consecutive decades, 2001–2010 and 2011–2020, show increases of 46% for TN, and 82% for TP. At the watershed scale, month-to- month TN and TP outflows range from 24 to 810 kg N and 26 to 1358 kg P during 2011–2020, compared with 42 to 398 kg N and 40 to 566 kg P during 2001–2010. The increase in nutrient outflow is particularly pronounced for TP and DP which show significant trends and high correlations (r > 0.70) with maximum monthly precipitation. An exception is nitrate-N outflow, which counts on average for less than 5% of TN outflow but appears more affected by the timing of N fertilization in the watershed.

Symbiotic association of microalgae and plants in a deep water culture system.

In this study, microalgae culture (Chlorella vulgaris) and mint seedlings (Mentha spp.) were combined in a hydroponic system to improve plant growth. Mint seedlings were grown both in microalgae-containing and in microalgae-free trial groups, and both groups were subjected to aerated and non-aerated conditions to show the effect of aeration and microalgae co-cultivation on the mint weight and height. The plant quality was also determined with color measurements of the mint leaves. The increase in the weight of the plants was the highest in microalgae-containing and aerated group (0.47 g) and the lowest in microalgae-free and non-aerated group (0.22 g). On the other hand, the variation in the plant height was not significant between the groups, the growth was lateral. The best quality mint leaves were also produced in microalgae-containing and aerated group. Our results have revealed the symbiotic life of the mint plant placed in the hydroponic system with microalgae and demonstrated improved mint growth and quality. This co-cultivation system is also potentially more environmentally friendly compared to growing microalgae and mint independently because of lower cost of aeration and mixing for microalgae cultivation, higher nutrient consumption efficiency, and reduced nutrient outflow.

Effect of timber removal on the total nutrient fluxes from a freshwater-supplying forested watershed.

Effects of 18% thinning on nutrient fluxes were investigated in a broadleaf forest. Streamflow and suspended sediment were sampled during the calibration and treatment periods for the treatment and control watersheds to determine total nutrient fluxes through bedload sediment and runoff. Streamflow was measured, and water samples were collected from the streams of the watersheds. The volume of the bedload deposited in both weirs' pools was measured, and sediment deposits were sampled at the ends of the calibration and treatment periods. Water and sediment samples were analyzed for calcium (Ca2+ ), magnesium (Mg2+ ), Kjeldahl nitrogen (KN), sodium (Na+ ), potassium (K+ ), iron (Fe3+ ), and sulfur (S2- ). Results showed that there was only a significant increase in KN loss from 0.01 kg/ha to 0.10kg/ha and from 0.04 kg/ha to 2.41 kg/ha in the second and the third post-treatment years, respectively (P < 0.05). Thinning was not intensive to change nutrient outflow in the study site. PRACTITIONER POINTS: The 18% thinning was not intensive enough to increase the total nutrient flux, deteriorate water chemical quality, and hence threaten aquatic life in the stream water. Significant increases were found only in KN outflow after timber removal. If there is no information about the effect of timber harvest on nutrient loss in a specific watershed, the application of evenly distributed low-intensity timber harvest may be a good option to protect stream water quality in forested watersheds. Further investigations are needed about the effects of various timber harvest intensities on physical water quality (odor, color, turbidity, taste, temperature, etc.) and biological characteristics (population and biodiversity of aquatic organisms) of the stream water for making better water management plans.

Performance Upgrading Evaluation of the Anaerobic Baffled Reactor by Integrating Aerobic Media Filter for Municipal Wastewater Treatment

Background &amp; Aims of the Study: Anaerobic baffled reactor (ABR) is one of the low-cost wastewater treatment systems; however, it has some limitations, such as insufficient standard nutrient outflow. Accordingly, it should be studied and developed. This research aims to determine the efficiency of a five-sectional reactor pilot and to upgrade it with an integrated aerated media filter in the reactor (integrated reactor) for municipal wastewater treatment. Materials and Methods: This study was performed on a laboratory scale with field conditions in the Khoy City wastewater treatment plant. The ABR reactor operated for 270 days with a hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 48, 36, 24, and 18 hours, respectively. The Integrated anaerobic baffled reactor (IABR) was operated for 35 days with 24 hours of HRT, i.e., aeration time of 5 hours. The reactors were fed in line from the inflowing wastewater to the treatment plant. A 24-hour combined sampling was performed 224 times from the inflow and outflow of the system, and volatile suspended solids, total kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), total phosphorus (TP), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), and Total Suspended Solids (TSS) parameters were measured and compared with the effluent disposal standard. Results: The launch of ABR lasted 105 days, and its helpful operation lasted 200 days. In 18 to 48 hours, the reactor removed 79% to 91% of COD, 9% to 20% of TKN, 19% to 30% of phosphorus, and 89% to 94% of TSS. The IABR reached the effluent disposal standard in terms of TSS, BOD, COD, and phosphorus under 24 hours HRT, i.e., aeration time of 5 hours, and increased the COD removal efficiency by 6% compared to ABR under 24 hours HRT and the same conditions. Conclusion: By integrating the final aerobic media filter in ABR while reducing the required HRT by 50%, its efficiency in achieving the effluent disposal standards increased compared to ABR. Therefore, this system can be used to treat municipal wastewater.

Autophagy and the Energy Status of Plant Cells

In plant cells the homeostatic control of energy balance involves the production and recycling of adenylates with macroergic bonds, ATP and ADP. The maintenance of anabolic processes requires the relative saturation of the adenylate pool with high energy phosphoanhydride bonds. The bulk of ATP synthesis is carried out both in mitochondria and in chloroplasts while optimal ATP levels within other cell compartments are maintained by adenylate kinases (AK). AK activity was recently found in cytosol, mitochondria, plastids and the nucleus. ATP synthesis in energy-producing organelles, as well as redistribution of nutrients among cellular compartments, requires fine-tuned regulation of ion homeostasis. A special role in energy metabolism is played by autophagy, a process of active degradation of unwanted and/or damaged cell components and macromolecules within the central lytic vacuole. So-called constitutive autophagy controls the quality of cellular contents under favorable conditions, i.e., when the cellular energy status is high. Energy depletion can lead to the activation of the pro-survival process of autophagic removal and utilization of damaged structures; the breakdown products are then used for ATP regeneration and de novo synthesis of macromolecules. Mitophagy and chlorophagy maintain the populations of healthy and functional energy-producing “stations”, preventing accumulation of defective mitochondria and chloroplasts as potential sources of dangerous reactive oxygen species. However, the increase of autophagic flux above a threshold level can lead to the execution of the vacuolar type of programmed cell death (PCD). In this case autophagy also contributes to preservation of energy through support of the outflow of nutrients from dying cells to healthy neighboring tissues. In plants, two central protein kinases, SnRK1 (Snf1-related protein kinase 1) and TOR (target of rapamycin), are responsible for the regulation of the metabolic switch between anabolic and catabolic pathways. TOR promotes the energy-demanding metabolic reactions in response to nutrient availability and simultaneously suppresses catabolism including autophagy. SnRK1, the antagonist of TOR, senses a decline in cellular energy supply and reacts by inducing autophagy through several independent pathways. Here, we provide an overview of the recent knowledge about the interplay between SnRK1 and TOR, autophagy and PCD in course of the regulation of energy balance in plants.

Nutrients Runoff and Rice Growth by Soil Texture and Transplanting Time during Early Maturing Rice Cultivating

The early maturing rice is a species that can be cultivated at various times, such as early, normal season, and late cultivation, depending on the purpose. There are many studies on the characteristics of rice according to the transplanting time for these early maturing rice, but studies on the runoff of nutrients are insignificant. The surface runoff of NH4+-N was the highest among the treatment at 1.337 g m-2 (2020 year) in the Clay Loam (CL) & late cultivation, and the smallest treatment was the Sandy Loam (SL) & normal season cultivation (0.005 g m-2, 2019 year). The highest NO3--N surface runoff was 0.137 g m-2 (2020 year) in the CL & late cultivation. In the case of phosphate, there were more nutrients runoff from late cultivation with large outflows than normal season cultivation. The underground runoff of NH4+-N was the highest among the treatment at 0.147 g m-2 (2020 year) in the SL & late cultivation, and the smallest treatment was the CL & normal season cultivation (0.007 g m-2, 2019 year). The highest NO3--N underground runoff was 2.113 g m-2 (2019 year) in the SL & normal season cultivation. In order to compare rice growth, the dry weight of leaves, shoots, and ears after rice harvest was compared. ear was a little larger in the normal season cultivation than in the late cultivation in 2019 (p < 0.05), but there was no difference in ear according to soil texture and the transplanting time in 2020. There may be differences in nutrient outflow and rice growth depending on the soil texture and transplanting time when cultivating early maturing rice, and the results of this study can be used as basic data on nutrient outflow in paddy when cultivating early maturing rice. The amount of nutrients losses due to underground runoff during cultivation. Year Transplanting time Soil texture Water runoff (mm) Nutrient runoff (g m-2) NH4+-N NO3--N PO43- 2019 Normal CL† 91.5 0.007 0.094 0.003 SL 365.4 0.027 2.113 0.005 Late CL 56.7 0.011 0.035 0.003 SL 431.2 0.034 1.301 0.025 2020 Normal CL 329.7 0.012 0.106 0.002 SL 337.1 0.080 0.558 0.016 Late CL 27.5 0.019 0.020 0.001 SL 356.3 0.147 0.218 0.012 †CL, clay loam; SL, sandy loam.

Heat stress in macrofungi: effects and response mechanisms.

Temperature is one of the key factors that affects the growth and development of macrofungi. Heat stress not only negatively affects the morphology and growth rate of macrofungi, but also destroys cell structures and influences cell metabolism. Due to loosed structure of cell walls and increased membrane fluidity, which caused by heat stress, the outflow of intracellular nutrients makes macrofungi more vulnerable to invasion by pathogens. Macrofungi accumulate reactive oxygen species (ROS), Ca2+, and nitric oxide (NO) when heat-stressed, which transmit and amplify the heat stimulation signal through intracellular signal transduction pathways. Through regulation of some transcription factors including heat response factors (HSFs), POZCP26 and MYB, macrofungi respond to heat stress by different mechanisms. In this paper, we present mechanisms used by macrofungi to adapt and survive under heat stress conditions, including antioxidant defense systems that eliminate the excess ROS, increase in trehalose levels that prevent enzymes and proteins deformation, and stabilize cell structures and heat shock proteins (HSPs) that repair damaged proteins and synthesis of auxins, which increase the activity of antioxidant enzymes. All of these help macrofungi resist and adapt to heat stress. KEY POINTS: • The effects of heat stress on macrofungal growth and development were described. • The respond mechanisms to heat stress in macrofungi were summarized. • The further research directions of heat stress in macrofungi were discussed.

Nutrients and solids removal in bioretention columns using recycled materials under intermittent and frequent flow operations

This research investigated the fate and removal of nitrite (NO2–N), nitrate (NO3–N), orthophosphate (PO4–P), and total suspended solids (TSS) in two bioretention columns, which were designed with three recycled materials. The first column was packed with Recycled Concrete Aggregate (RCA). The second column was a Layered Media (LM), which has layers of RCA with crushed glass and rice husks. The columns were tested under intermittent and frequent operations of synthetic runoff with low and high feed concentrations. The effect of inflow concentration, antecedent dry days (ADD), column age, and the anticipated number of events (EN) was also statistically analyzed on the performance of columns. Depending on column types, nutrient removal was significantly (p < 0.05) increased under frequent flow operations by 26–53% over intermittent. However, TSS removal was notably (p < 0.05) increased by 23–35% under intermittent operations over frequent. Overall, LM showed an increased NO2–N (92 ± 2%) and NO3–N (88% ± 2%) removal under low feed frequent operations and TSS removal (97% ± 2%) under initial intermittent operations. On the contrary, RCA showed a maximum of 99% PO4–P removal under high feed frequent operations. Results showed that the nutrient outflow concentration was found to have a negative correlation with EN and column age and a positive correlation with ADDs throughout the experiments.