Numerous Caves Research Articles

Geopark Gemer: Geodiverzita a banské dedičstvo v geoturistike

The integration of geological heritage conservation into a regional sustainable economic and cultural development strategy is a general objective of geoparks. A geopark is an area that contains one or more sites of scientific importance not only from a geological point of view, but also from the point of view of its archaeological, economic or cultural specificity of European significance. The main objective of the paper is to present knowledge review and option for the development and strengthening of the role of geodiversity in tourism through the proposal of inclusion of the Geopark Gemer among the Geoparks of Slovakia. In the Gemer-Malohont region, there are 69 significant geological sites, which are protected under Act No. 543/2002 Coll., 5th or 4th level of protection, or are declared under the UNESCO Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. There are 1,444 old mine workings and 42 protected deposit areas in the territory. There are also numerous caves, scrapes, scrape fields, sinkholes, karst plots, karst lakes, cave openings, karst vents, etc., a total of 207 of them have been recorded in the area. Based on these findings, we can confirm that the Gemer-Malohont region has the potential for geotourism development. The designation of Geopark Gemer would ensure the promotion and protection of the region's geological and cultural heritage.

Focussed cave formation on the rising limb of a phreatic loop beneath a river – The Potholes, southeastern Australia

At the Buchan karst in southeastern Australia, Early Devonian carbonates contain >700 caves and karst-related features. The Potholes, in the northern part of the karst, is a densely cavernous area with >100 caves and 60 dolines over only ~0.8 km2. The caves here are predominantly vertical and the roofs commonly show smooth upward steps, indicative of having formed by rising groundwater. Because of sea level fluctuations during the Early Devonian, the limestone at The Potholes forms a tongue that lenses out to the south and is overlain and underlain by relatively insoluble marl. Mapping of fluvial sands and gravels and valley-filling basalt shows that in the Paleogene, the limestone lay beneath a broad, southwards-flowing river valley. Cave development occurred along phreatic loops within the limestone underneath the riverbed, and the upwards limbs of these phreatic loops were focussed into a small area where the limestone lensed out. The concentrated upwards groundwater flow, which connected to springs in the riverbed, resulted in intense cave development within a restricted area, where the groundwater exploited many different pathways within the limestone. The Potholes caves developed entirely beneath the riverbed, and are notable in that numerous caves fed multiple resurgences rather the more common situation world-wide of a single passage connecting to a resurgence. Both these characteristics reflect the unique geological configuration of the site, and show how karst development is determined by the particular arrangement of soluble limestone beds.Dissolution of The Potholes caves could have begun in the mid-Cretaceous, when uplift increased the gradient of the ancestral river flowing over the limestone, driving groundwater flow through phreatic loops beneath the river, and terminated when the caves were drained following a second uplift in the mid-Pliocene. This demonstrates the antiquity of cave formation in this part of Australia.

Mechanisms underlying albinism as a consequence of ommochrome deficiency in cave isopods

Albinism, or loss of pigment, is a typical adaptation to living in caves and occurs in numerous cave dwellers. To understand the evolution of this trait, one must identify the type of biological pigment present in the phylogenetically closest surface relatives. The absence of pigmentation has been studied primarily in terms of melanin deficiency, while the exact mechanism of ommochrome loss in any cave dwellers is largely unknown. Ommochromes are tryptophan derivatives and generally belong to a less studied class of biological pigments previously described in protostomes such as isopod crustaceans. Using a simple method for extraction and detection of ommochromes in conjunction with liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS), we characterized the nature of pigments in surface isopods. We detected, for the first time and to the best of our knowledge, ommochromes in three groups of surface isopods: the families Sphaeromatidae (Flabellifera) and Trichoniscidae (Oniscidea) and the genus Proasellus (Asellota). To determine which step of the ommochrome production pathway is disrupted in cave isopods, we quantified the precursors of ommochrome synthesis in closely related surface and cave species. Our results suggest that the disruption of ommochrome synthesis is preferentially located at the beginning of this anabolic cascade, as we observed an accumulation of the precursor tryptophan in albino species. To address this problem at the molecular level, we are trying to determine the exact genes and mutations that may be involved in the loss of ommochromes. We performed RNA-seq on two representatives of surface and cave species of the genus Proasellus and analyzed the data for expression changes in candidate genes.

Rocks in the Religious Beliefs and Rites of the Ob Ugrians

This study, based on materials collected in the 18th–20th centuries, and on the author’s field findings over the last 40 years, shows the role of rocks in the Ob Ugrian worldview and ritual practices. Evidence is provided on the veneration of various natural stone objects. Reasons for the cult of worshipping such places are discussed. One reason was that the rock resembled a human or animal figure. In legends and myths, the stone houses of heroic ancestors were correlated with numerous caves in the Ural Mountains. The main part of the article introduces materials relating to the stone figures of deities and patron spirits, supported by mythical narratives explaining the ways that a mythological hero was changed into stone. Examples are given of the figures of deities with a stone base found among local groups of the Ob Ugrians, such as the Lyapin and Sosva Mansi, Synya and Polui Khanty. The role of rocks in childbirth and funerary rites is examined, as well as their role in economic practices such as fishing. In Khanty and Mansi mythological beliefs, the modifier «stony» was equivalent to «iron» or «strong».

Rediscovered Mesolithic Rock Art Collection from Kamyana Mohyla Complex in Eastern Ukraine

Abstract The unique rock art complex of Kamyana Mohyla in South-Eastern Ukraine is known due to its numerous cave art engraved elements and settlements, which show how important is this site in the general picture of European prehistory as regards the Mesolithic, Neolithic and Bronze Age periods of the region. However, the assemblages from this site include also a collection of portable rock art artifacts called “churingas.” Important elements of this assemblage are thought to belong to the Mesolithic. These specimens illustrate different aspects of the artist’s worldview and are capable of revealing a lot of additional data on the technological and cultural aspects of their creation. However, their study is complicate because of a very abstract imaging, lack of systematic approach to the artifact classification and absence of a well-defined stratigraphic context from which they have been recovered. Likely, current state of archaeological record and modern technologies introduces the new opportunity to rediscover, reconsider and reshape this collection.

Rectangular drainage pattern evolution controlled by pipe cave collapse along clastic dikes, the Dead Sea Basin, Israel

AbstractRectangular drainage networks are characterized by right‐angle bends and confluences. The formation of such drainage patterns is commonly associated with orthogonal sets of fractures, making them an outstanding example for structurally controlled landscape evolution. However, this association remains largely circumstantial because little is known about how rectangular drainages mechanistically link to orthogonal fractures. We investigated these linkages in the hyper‐arid Ami'az Plain located within the Dead Sea Basin in Israel. The Ami'az Plain is penetrated by hundreds of sub‐vertical clastic dikes (mode‐I fractures infilled with sediments) and is also incised by a rectangular canyon system. Numerous caves extend from the banks and heads of the canyon system. Based on field surveys and analysis of high‐resolution airborne LiDAR data, we mapped the Ami'az Plain drainage network and its associated landforms, including sinkholes. Our analysis revealed that the subaerial tributaries of the canyon system and the strike of the clastic dikes show similar orientations. In addition, subsurface mapping with a ground‐based scanning LiDAR, together with field experiments, demonstrated that the caves and sinkholes in the Ami'az Plain are spatially associated with clastic dikes and that the caves formed through piping erosion along dikes. Based on these findings, we suggest that clastic dikes act as efficient infiltration pathways to the subsurface, where flow along clastic dikes induces internal erosion that forms pipe caves. The sinkholes form by collapses of cave roofs. Coalescence of sinkholes and seepage erosion where dikes intersect canyon heads generate new tributaries and act to extend existing ones. Fluvial erosion and subsequent bank collapse modify the canyon network. Our findings emphasize the critical role of subsurface erosion, caves and sinkholes in linking fractures to drainage pattern evolution, and provide a new process‐based framework to interpret rectangular drainage networks on Earth and possibly other planetary surfaces.

Kalymnos Island, SE Aegean Sea: From Fishing Sponges and Rock Climbing to Geotourism Perspective

The island of Kalymnos, located in the Dodecanese island complex in the SE Aegean, is known for its sponge fishing but also for its world-famous climbing fields. Indeed, the island is considered the “Mecca” of climbers. Nevertheless, Kalymnos is characterized by moderate tourist traffic and lack of tourism infrastructure. The planning and development of geotourism can be a driving force for the economic sustainability of the island. In this study, the possibility of developing the innovative and alternative form of geotourism on the island of Kalymnos is explored. Kalymnos is characterized by numerous caves and steep slopes which can be geotopes attractive to visitors. Six caverns and two climbing fields were analyzed as part of our investigation. For the quantitative assessment of the geosites three factors are considered: the potential educational use (PEU), the potential touristic use (PTU), and the degradation risk (DR). The quantitative evaluation in combination with a SWOT analysis showed that there is indeed a possibility of promotion and development of geotourism in combination with the protection of the island’s geotopes. This will give additional impetus to the economy of Kalymnos. However, the lack of awareness from local authorities and residents is evident. The need for training in matters related to the geological heritage is necessary. In this way, there will be geotourism development, contributing positively to the economic prosperity and sustainability of the island.

StalGrowth—A Program to Estimate Speleothem Growth Rates and Seasonal Growth Variations

Speleothems are one of the few archives which allow us to reconstruct the terrestrial paleoclimate and help us to understand the important climate dynamics in inhabited regions of our planet. Their time of growth can be precisely dated by radiometric techniques, but unfortunately seasonal radiometric dating resolution is so far not feasible. Numerous cave environmental monitoring studies show evidence for significant seasonal variations in parameters influencing carbonate deposition (calcium-ion concentration, cave air pCO2, drip rate and temperature). Variations in speleothem deposition rates need to be known in order to correctly decipher the climate signal stored in the speleothem archive. StalGrowth is the first software to quantify growth rates based on cave monitoring results, detect growth seasonality and estimate the seasonal growth bias. It quickly plots the predicted speleothem growth rate together with the influencing cave environmental parameters to identify which parameter(s) cause changes in speleothem growth rate, and it can also identify periods of no growth. This new program has been applied to multiannual cave monitoring studies in Austria, Gibraltar, Puerto Rico and Texas, and it has identified two cases of seasonal varying speleothem growth.

Application of GIS in the process of identification and tourist valorization of doline karst landscapes and terrains in Bosnia and Herzegovina

Soluble rocks where karst and genetically related types of relief are represented characterize over 50% of the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The karst of Bosnia and Herzegovina is characterized by various shapes, while a great number of different terrains make the "locus typus" of karst in the world. The main tourist motives include numerous caves, springs, mountain peaks and cliffs, canyons and gorges, rivers with travertine waterfalls, and karst fields. Independently or as part of a larger whole, some of these motives represent protected areas, they make the most crucial tourist motives and are the most visited tourist destinations in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Doline karst is a widespread karst landscape phenomenon in Bosnia and Herzegovina, but there are only a few sites that are known to the overall population. Through the use of GIS, this study identifies the areas of doline karst in Bosnia and Herzegovina, it explains the ways how sinkholes and doline karstlands are formed and identifies the fundamental factors contributing to their development, but it also highlights the possibilities for making the doline karst a part of the future local tourist offer.

Synthesis and assessment of the flat-headed peccary record in North America

Flat-headed peccary (Platygonus compressus) were a common member of late Pleistocene faunal communities in the eastern United States, particularly in areas characterized by dissected, rugged terrain with numerous caves, crevices, and fissures that afforded shelter from severe weather for farrowing and when sick, injured, or aged. The taxon was not common on the Great Plains and in the Far West. Using the Gaussian-resampled inverse-weighted McInerny method (GRIWM) to analyze the distribution of direct radiocarbon ages, we found that final extinction likely occurred during the Younger Dryas, between ∼12,500 cal B.P. and ∼12,000 cal B.P. Currently, evidence for actual contemporaneity of flat-headed peccary and human (Clovis) foragers does not exist. The late Pleistocene-Younger Dryas shift to a nutrient-decelerating mode of ecosystem fueling and its concomitant effect on forage quality may have arrested reproductivity. Simple simulations indicate that small increases in inter-birth interval and/or juvenile mortality could have resulted in rapid extinction of the animal.

The Bronze Age Levels of the Eremita Cave in Piedmont (Italy): First Chronological and Cultural Data

This article presents the first results of the planned archaeological excavations led by Prof. Marie Besse, head of the Laboratory of prehistoric archaeology and anthropology of the Department F.-A. Forel for environmental and aquatic sciences of the University of Geneva, at the Eremita Cave site between 2012 and 2015. The Eremita Cave is located in the North Italian region of Piedmont, in the heart the calcareous massif of Monte Fenera, near Borgosesia (Vercelli). The Monte Fenera is already well known for its numerous caves, many of which contain archaeological remains chronologically spanning from the Palaeolithic to the Middle Ages. This particular situation can be explained by two elements: the uniqueness of the massif from a geological perspective when compared to the rest of the area, and its strategic localisation on the southern alpine foothills, that made it a possible stopover for the people transitioning the Alps. The interest of the researchers of the Laboratory of prehistoric archaeology and anthropology was sparked by the mention of the discovery of a bone button attributed to the “eta del Rame” (Copper Age) in the Eremita Cave in the late 1980s by the Gruppo Archeologico e Speleologico di Borgosesia (GASB). The first test trenches confirmed the importance of this archaeological site with the uncovering of a pin and spiralled pearls in bronze in the middle of the cave. Further excavations began in 2013. They allowed the team to point out to two important levels. The first one being US 10, a thin silty level that contains numerous lumps of coal. The second is US 19, a level identified around 40 cm below US 10. It delivered a great amount of animal remains, mostly burned, in association with potsherds and stone blocks, and most importantly bronze finery. Four charcoal samples were sent for radiocarbon dating to Zurich (ETH), one belonging to US 10, one to US 19 in the back of the cave, and two to US 19 around the place of discovery of the pin and pearls. The results showed that US 10 is dated to the Late Bronze Age (ETH-64659, 1013-850 cal BC), and US 19 to the earliest stages of Middle Bronze Age (ETH-64657, 1767-1627 cal BC). They also confirmed that the stratigraphy of the cave was undisturbed. Culturally speaking, the shape of the pin shows affinities with the North of the Alps, while the pottery shapes display similarities with the common cultural ground of the alpine region, mostly Valais and Piedmont. Excavations are being carried on by the University of Geneva. The researchers are aiming at determining the function of the cave, mainly by studying the location of the archaeological structures and remains but also by linking the spatial distribution of potsherds to the reassembled pottery. The typological and technological analysis of the pottery assemblage should allow us to establish the cultural affiliations of the site.

A STUDY OF HYDRO RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AT EARLY HISTORIC SITE OF KANHERI, MAHARASHTRA: AN ENGINEERING PERSPECTIVE

Kanheri known as “Krishnagiri” or “Krishnasaila” in ancient inscriptions is located (19° 13` N. and 72° 59` E) 10 Km to south east of Borivali, a suburb of metropolitan Mumbai. It is a rock cut cave complex comprising of more than 110 Buddhist caves including chaityas, Viharas, Stupas, cells etc. This site culturally dates back from 2nd century C.E to late 11th Century C.E. Kanheri is distinctively known for its sustainability as well as certain peculiar features like site’s multi-storied settlement pattern, satellite settlements, developed water conservation system, brick memorial gallery, connectivity through rock cut steps etc. Apart from this, Kanheri stands out to be unique due to its well-developed hydro resource system which was operational for more than a millennium. The water must have been an important commodity for the ancient monks so as today. Thus a system that regulates the resourceful conservation of water during scarcity periods can be noticed at site. The prominent elements comprising of this hydro resource system are cisterns, large tanks, a dam/ reservoir, water channels and its connectivity. There are some inscriptions found associated to donations of these cisterns and tanks suggests us a methodology for dating numerous caves and its cisterns respectively. A study of water management at the site considering the epigraphical, social and religious aspects has been attempted by various scholars till now. But this paper exclusively aims at investigating the significance of ancient hydraulic mechanisms that are evident at site, intends to prove the ancient administrative structure of monastery which regulated the advancement of engineering to sustain their livelihood. Thus an attempt will be made to study the mechanism behind this system considering the scientific and mechanical perspectives with the use of engineering principles.

MONUMENTS OF NATURE AND HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL OBJECTS OF THE DNISTROVSKYI RLP: THE STATE OF PROTECTION AND THE PROSPECTS OF TOURIST USE

The existing nature conservation objects that are part of the Dnistrovskyi Regional Landscape Park are characterized and mapped. There are more than sixty different types of WFD objects in and around the park. All objects are tabulated. Also, geological, geomorphological, hydrological objects have been identified that have scientific, recreational and educational value, which gives grounds for granting them conservation status. This is a large number of rocks of different ages (Silurian, Devonian, Jurassic, Cretaceous), which makes it possible to study the history and condition sof the territory. The location is mapped. Also on the map as places of interest are the places of manifestation of modern geomorphological processes. Fluvial, karst, gravity, erosion and other processes are most evidentin the park. The dynamics of karst processes haveled to the formation of numerous caves and cave formations, which are valuable from the scientific and recreational plan. A mong the hydrological and hydro-geological features are waterfalls, marshe sand ground water exits to the surface in the form of springs. Historical and cultural sites occurring with in and around the park are characterized and mapped. The seare objects of Paleolithic heritage (the oldestin Bukivna, Horodnytsia), Kievan Rus' period, ruins of ancient castles (Rakovetsky and Chekrnelitsky) and fotresses, lordlye states, ancient churches, of which there are more than thirty, existing and in active in the region. The most ancient are the village of Michalce), monuments of liberation competitions (hiding places) and places of great historical battles. It maps and describes the existing route sand objects of the tourist infrastructure of the Dnistrovskyi RLP. The park and surrounding areas haves ignificant natural and recreational potential. The presence of a large number of diverse natural sites make sit possible to create attractions for tourism development in the region. The presence of historical and cultural heritage en hances the use of the territory. New routes and proposals for improvement of the tourist infrastructure of the territory were developed: creation of an eco-educational visit center, placement of agroosel complexes, arrangement of places for stops during the Dniester alloys, creation of a network of tourist points at the places of passage of route sand places of rest of residents, development and in stallation of new information standsne are xisting tourist natural and historical sites in the study area. Key words: Dnistrovskyi RLR, Nature Reserve objects, historical and cultural sites, nature monuments, recreational resources, tourism.

Cave art reveals human nature

Summary Prehistoric artworks have been discovered on numerous cave walls around the world. They tell us about the minds and lives of ancient humans as well as about their relationship with the now extinct megafauna that surrounded them. Michael Gross reports.

Vermiculations from karst caves: The case of Pertosa-Auletta system (Italy)

Unlike the spectacular speleothems that can often be found in numerous caves, vermiculations are rather unassuming formations, whose origin and evolution still subject of several heated debates. In order to provide a quantitative basis for the understanding of the nature and evolution of vermiculations in karst environments, the geochemical properties of one of the most important karst systems of southern Italy, the Pertosa-Auletta Cave, were studied through a comprehensive approach which included elemental, mineralogical and microscopy analyses. The chemical element abundances, mineral composition and microstructure of the vermiculations covering the entire range of morphologies and colours observed in the case-study cave were investigated, thus providing the first quantitative record of these traits.The vermiculations presented exceptional diversity in their morphology, colour, chemical and mineral composition, with it being due to exogenous determinants such as the deposition of stream sediments or organic matter as well as the development of photoautotrophic communities. They were invariably composed of calcite, associated to quartz as well as clays and other secondary minerals, the formation of which may be biologically mediated. This occurrence, and the evidences of microbial activity observed through dissolution traces, support the possible involvement of biogenic processes in vermiculation development.

Ship Graffiti on the Islands of the Bahamas, Turks and Caicos and Puerto Rico: A Comparative Analysis

Across the Caribbean and adjacent regions, systematic inventories of historical ship graffiti remain markedly incomplete. Previous studies had identified several islands in the Bahamas and Turks and Caicos associated with ship graffiti primarily within colonial period structures. We expanded the range of these preliminary inventories, recording a diverse array of ship graffiti specific to plantation era structures across seven islands in the Bahamian Archipelago, as well as the sole cave site known to harbor such imagery. Examples were also associated with Spanish colonial era fortifications in Old San Juan and found within a set of nine of the numerous caves found on Isla de Mona and two caves on the Puerto Rican mainland. Many of the nautical images encountered were previously unrecorded as they have only recently been revealed through systematic exploration and detailed site surveys, demonstrating that the phenomenon is regionally more widespread and complex than previously known. In this interregional study of ship graffiti in the Puerto Rican and Bahamian Archipelagos, we examine image distribution patterns, techniques, preservation status and historical context unique to each area, contrasting the respective Euro-colonial cultural arcs reflected in these distinctive nautical iconographies. Although each act of mark-making is historically and contextually unique, we consider what this imagery has in common, namely that the majority were produced under conditions of slavery, confinement, and/or hard labor.

Interpreting the historical terrestrial vertebrate biodiversity of Cayman Brac (Greater Antilles, Caribbean) through collagen fingerprinting

Cayman Brac (Cayman Islands) lies within the Caribbean Islands Biodiversity Hotspot, an epicenter of high biodiversity and endemism. However, all endemic terrestrial mammals on the Cayman Islands are now extinct, following post-1500 AD human colonization of the islands. Introduced rodents and domesticated mammals now exclusively represent this facet of terrestrial fauna on the Cayman Islands, and are a likely cause of endemic species loss on the islands. Cayman Brac has numerous caves and rock fissures that offer protection to a naturally accumulated ensemble of vertebrate sub-fossil bone remains, documenting modifications in island biodiversity through the Holocene. In this study, we showcase the first molecular faunal survey undertaken on sub-fossil remains from the Cayman Islands, using collagen fingerprinting for taxonomic identification of the cave skeletal deposits collected from a single cave system, Green Cave on Cayman Brac. Collagen type (I) extracts from 485 bone fragments were analyzed to determine faunal identity and assemblage composition. A total of 76% of the collagen fingerprint-yielding samples were mammalian in origin, 67% of which were identified as invasive murid rodents. Here, we present mass spectral biomarkers for the endemic terrestrial mammal fauna of Cayman Brac, including the extinct capromyid rodents, Capromys and Geocapromys (Rodentia: Capromyidae), alongside commentary on the composition of the sub-fossil bone assemblage between the five distinct depositional chambers that comprise Green Cave. Collagen (I) provides a key service in taxonomic identification and mapping of macroevolutionary trends, and these results suggest a pivotal role for murid rodents in the competition and extinction of terrestrial endemic mammals from the Cayman Islands.

Novel hybrid anode of MnO nanoparticles and ultrathin carbon sheets for high lithium storage performance

To design and prepare novel metal oxide-carbon composites are always considered as a feasible way to explore potential candidates for high-performance electrode materials. In this work, we fabricated the unique composites of MnO nanoparticles and graphene-like carbon flakes by pyrolysis of an inorganic-organic layered compound. As precursors, the inorganic-organic layered compounds create a special two-dimensional space, which induces a novel hybrid of MnO nanoparticles and carbon flakes. The as-obtained ultrathin carbon flakes are not smooth but contain numerous caves, where the MnO nanoparticles are located with the even size of 20 nm. This unique compositing pattern of MnO particles and carbons endows the MnO/CS with a larger contact area and a closer combination between active materials and conductive scaffolds, leading to an excellent electrochemical performance as the anode materials of lithium-ion batteries.

Bridging prehistoric caves with buried landscapes in the Swabian Jura (southwestern Germany)

The Ach and Lone valleys of the Swabian Jura represent two key areas for the study of the dispersal of modern humans into central Europe, owing to the presence of numerous cave sites in the region that contain stratigraphic sequences spanning the Middle and Upper Paleolithic. However, despite the relatively complete sequences contained within these caves, previous studies hypothesize that phases of erosion have influenced the preservation of Upper Paleolithic deposits, particularly those dating to the Gravettian. Furthermore, these same studies suggest that during the Late Glacial and Holocene, colluvial sediments subsequently covered these unconformities. In this paper we present a dataset that helps us evaluate how geomorphological processes active at the regional scale around the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) have impacted the preservation of the archaeological record within the cave sites of the Ach and Lone valleys. To this end we applied and integrated a variety of methods, including geophysical prospection, coring, micromorphology, Fourier Transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and radiocarbon dating. Our results show that alternating phases of soil formation, hillside denudation, river valley incision and floodplain aggradation have been the major processes active in Lone and Ach valleys throughout the Pleistocene and Holocene. These processes impacted the formation histories of the caves in the two valleys, thereby significantly influencing how we interpret the archaeological record of the region. In particular our data support the hypothesis arguing for the erosion of Gravettian-aged deposits (which are dated between 29.000 and 27.000 14C BP) from the caves of Bockstein, Hohle Fels and possibly Hohlenstein-Stadel. Shortly after this erosive phase, increased depositional rates of loess nearly free of gravel and reworked soils marked in both the Ach and Lone valleys a shift towards colder and drier conditions corresponding with the LGM. Deteriorating climate likely forced Gravettian groups to abandon the Swabian Jura. The Magdalenian recolonization of the region took place in a cool interstadial (13.500–12.500 14C BP) that was followed by a period of climate deterioration with minor phases of erosion in the caves and bedrock denudation. Towards the beginning of the Holocene the accumulation of frost debris (Bergkies) at the cave entrances marked the cessation of erosion within the caves.

Hypogene Sulfuric Acid Speleogenesis and rare sulfate minerals in Baume Galinière Cave (Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, France). Record of uplift, correlative cover retreat and valley dissection

The oxidation of hydrocarbons and sulfide sources (H2S, pyrite) produces sulfuric acid that strongly reacts with bedrock, causing limestone dissolution and complex interactions with other minerals from the bedrock or from cave fillings, mainly clays. This type of cave development, known as Sulfuric Acid Speleogenesis (SAS), is a subcategory of hypogene speleogenesis, where aggressive water rises from depth. It also produces uncommon minerals, mainly sulfates, the typical byproducts of SAS. Baume Galinière is located in Southern France, in the Vaucluse spring watershed. This small maze cave displays characteristic SAS features such as corrosion notches, calcite geodes, iron crusts, and various sulfate minerals. Sulfur isotopes of SAS byproducts (jarosite and gypsum) clearly show they derive from pyrite oxidation. Using XRD and micro-Raman spectroscopy, thirteen minerals were identified, including elemental sulfur, calcite, quartz, pyrite, goethite, gypsum, and fibroferrite, plus all of the six members of the jarosite subgroup (jarosite, argentojarosite, ammoniojarosite, hydroniumjarosite, natrojarosite, plumbojarosite). The Baume Galinière deposits are the first documented cave occurrence of argentojarosite and the second known occurrence of plumbojarosite, hydronium jarosite, ammoniojarosite, and fibroferrite. In the Vaucluse watershed, there were numerous upwellings of deep water along major faults, located at the contact of the karstic aquifer and the overlying impervious covers. The mixing of deep and meteoric waters at shallow depths caused pyrite depositions in numerous caves, including Baume Galinière. Sulfuric Acid Speleogenesis occurred later after base-level drop, when the cave was under shallow phreatic conditions then in the vadose zone, with oxidation of pyrites generating sulfuric acid. Attenuated oxidation is still occurring through condensation of moisture from incoming air. Baume Galinière Cave records the position of the semi-impervious paleo-cover and documents its retreat in relationship to valley incision caused by uplift and tilting of the Vaucluse block during the Neogene.