Number Of School Years Research Articles

Predictors of Senior High School Teacher's Job Satisfaction Level

With the implementation of the Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013, also known as Republic Act 10533 or K to 12, the Philippines initiated a curriculum change in its basic education system. This change extended the number of years in school from ten (10) to twelve (12), leading to the introduction of Senior High School. However, this alteration in the educational system posed challenges in maintaining job satisfaction among educators. Grounded in Herzberg's two-factor theory, this study aims to analyze the predictors of job satisfaction among Senior High School teachers in a private educational institution. Employing a quantitative research design, the study utilized the Job Satisfaction Survey to gauge the job satisfaction levels of these teachers. Data analysis involved T-tests and ANOVA. Results revealed that the satisfaction levels of respondents did not significantly differ, as indicated by a t-test probability value of 0.937, failing to reject the null hypothesis since 0.937 exceeds the significance level of 0.05. Thus, there was no significant difference in job satisfaction levels based on gender. However, educational attainment was found to predict differences in job satisfaction levels among senior high school teachers. Overall, the study suggests a significant relationship between job satisfaction levels and years of teaching experience among senior high school teachers.

Drivers of genetically modified maize production among rural farming households in Ngqushwa Local Municipality, South Africa: A triple hurdle approach

Enhancing rural agricultural productivity using proven technologies such as genetically modified (GM) maize production has many advantages as a pathway to economic development and poverty reduction. However, despite the global rise in GM maize and potential benefits of GM technology, the production rates and yields of smallholder farmers remain very low for reasons that are poorly understood. With this background, the aim of this study was to investigate the drivers of genetically modified (GM) maize awareness, participation, and intensity of production at the household level. Data were collected from 400 randomly selected respondents from Ngqushwa Local Municipality using a semi-structured questionnaire. Through a triple hurdle model, the study revealed that GM maize awareness is negatively influenced by age and female gender and positively influenced by married status, employment and number of years in school. Conditional on awareness of GM maize varieties, both participation and intensity of participation in GM maize production are positively influenced by land size, female gender, group membership, income and ownership of arable land and negatively influenced by employment. The study recommends that priority should be given to these socio-economic and institutional (group membership) factors by targeting GM maize awareness campaigns using platforms more suited to female-headed, older, less educated and unemployed rural farming households. The study also recommends addressing income, secure land ownership and access to large areas of land.

1503-PUB: Modeling the Prediction of Improvement on Gait and Cognition among Patients Receiving Intranasal Insulin

Objective: To model the probability of improvement on gait and cognition among patients who received intranasal insulin (INI) Methods: 223 patients (1diabetes, 117 controls) randomized into 4 arms: 55 diabetes placebo, 51 diabetes INI, 59 control placebo, 58 control INI, 1women, 66±9 years of age. INI treatment lasted 24 weeks with 40 IU of INI (Novolin® R, off-label use) or placebo (sterile saline) . normal walk speed (NW) , dual task walk speed (DT) , executive function (EF) , verbal memory (VB) . Improvement due was defined to be better performance at end of treatment compared to baseline. Eleven of 20 baseline predictors were selected in a multivariable generalized linear model with logit link and binomial error to predict the probability of improvement among the 1patients who received INI. Results: 58% of the INI patients improved on NW, 62% improved on DT, 69% EF, and 47% VB. The predictors for the final model included 6 baseline demographic variables (age, number of years of diabetes, number of years in school, Wechsler Adult Reading test, global depression score, and waist circumference; and 5 metabolism-related variables of hemoglobinA1c, fasting plasma glucose, total cholesterol, microalbumin in urine, and microalbumin to creatinine ratio. Conclusion: Modeling technique also allows us to compute the estimated probability of improvement for any individual patients, thus, enabling us to understand better the particular demographic and metabolic profiles that best predict who among those receiving INI could benefit the most from the treatment. Funded by NIH-NIDDK (1R01DK103902) , FDA (IND#107690) , Novo Nordisk, Inc. (ISS-001063) , Medtronic Inc. (NERP15-0310) and registered on www.clinicaltrials.gov (NCT02415556.) Disclosure L.H.Ngo: None. V.Novak: None. P.Novak: Stock/Shareholder; Moderna, Inc., Novavax, Pfizer Inc., Prothena. C.Mantzoros: Advisory Panel; Novo Nordisk. W.Dai: None. V.Lioutas: None. Funding Funded by NIH-NIDDK (1R01DK103902) , FDA (IND#107690) , Novo Nordisk, Inc. (ISS-001063) , Medtronic Inc. (NERP15-0310)

Investigation of Communication Type and Individual Characteristics : A Longitudinal HRS Analysis

Older adults are at increased risk for loneliness/isolation, particularly with new COVID-19 recommendations; however, communication may help mitigate these negative perceptions. Reductions in loneliness/isolation may also significantly improve quality of life and well-being for vulnerable populations. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships between communication, individual characteristics, and time, to provide a clearer understanding of communication patterns in a longitudinal cohort. Participants (N=2351) with no missing data on any variables of interest (across time-points) were pulled from the Health and Retirement Study’s Consumption and Activity’s Mail Survey (waves collected: 2013, 2015, 2017). When last reported (2016/17), respondents were an average age of 70.14(SD=9.9), were generally female (63.0%) and white (75.7%). Analyses included longitudinal investigation, normality tests, and regression. Assumptions were violated in ANOVA; results of a Kruskal-Wallis test revealed that there were no significant changes in the distribution of in-person or distanced communication across the three waves. Individual responses were then averaged and standardized across waves (per participant for each outcome variable). In-person communication regression results reveal that being female positively predicted in-person conversation volume (B=0.23,p<.001) as did increasing number of years in school (B=0.03,p<.001), while being non-white negatively predicted in-person conversation (B=-0.301,p<.001). Distanced communication regression results reveal being female positively predicted volume of distanced communication (B=0.381,p<.001); however, being non-white and younger positively predicted increased volume of distanced communication (B=0.241,p<.001; B=0.005,p<.001, respectively). Given the varied communication patterns, future research should consider explanatory mechanisms in addition to investigating changes as a result of the ongoing pandemic.

EFFECT OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS ON THE PERCEPTION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AMONG RURAL RICE FARMERS IN ANAMBRA STATE, NIGERIA

This paper ascertained the level of awareness of climate change among rural rice farmers in Anambra Agricultural zone of Anambra state, determined the effect of socio-economic characteristics of the farmers on their perception of climate change, and identified the coping strategies adopted by these farmers to mitigate the impact of climate change. A multistage sampling technique was used to select a total of 120 rice farmers in rice producing areas of Anambra Agricultural zone. Descriptive statistics and Regression analysis were used for the analysis. Results showed that 52% of the farmers were highly aware of the concept of climate change while 38% were slightly aware. These rice farmers’ perceptions of climate change included high intensity of sun, variation in rainfall duration, change in weather, and poor yield of crops. Number of years in school, Farming experience, sex, number of visits by extension agents and mode of farming were identified as the socioeconomic characteristics affecting farmers’ perception of the concept of climate change. The coping strategies adopted by these farmers included adjustment of planting calendar, mixed cropping, close monitoring of weather, improved managerial skills and usage of improved varieties. The study recommended that the extension agents should enlighten the farmers, through an on-farm education, on climate change and its coping strategies, and also, the use of plant varieties that can withstand changes in the climate should be promoted.

Mental Health Impact of the Confinement Measures During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Background. Mid-March 2020, with exponentially increasing COVID-19 infections, Luxembourg closed schools and businesses, and declared a crisis (état de crise) to implement confinement measures, including orders to not leave the home unless to fulfill essential needs. The psychological consequences of these policy responses to the pandemic on older people, considered a high-risk group, were unknown at the time. The aim of this study was to use the nationally representative CON-VINCE study that assessed mental health at the height of the confinement measures mid-April 2020, to assess the psychological impact of quarantine on older adults. Method. A total of 451 participants aged 60+ years (55.0% male) filled in the CES-D, the GAD-7 and the 3-item loneliness scale that measured depressive symptoms, level of anxiety, and feelings of social isolation. Results. Mean age was 67.7 years (SD 5.5), average number of school years were 13.1 (SD 3.6). The participants were mainly of Luxembourgish nationality (87.8%), and a majority (69.8%) was married. Clinically relevant depression scores were present in 13.1%, generalized anxiety in 1.8%, and self-perceived isolation in 16.9% of participants. Number of depressive symptoms was associated with perceived isolation (p<0.001) and current exercise levels (p=0.02). Discussion. The rate of older adults with clinically relevant impaired mental health was similar to pre-pandemic levels in Luxembourg, suggesting that negative mental health consequences of the confinement measures were largely absent. Possible explanations are that confinement was considered a universal experience, and that the healthcare system remained functional, unlike in other countries at the time.

A probit Analysis of Determinants of Adoption of Improved Sorghum Technologies Among Farmers in Tanzania

The adoption of improved sorghum technologies by smallholder farmers is still low in Tanzania. Many farmers fail to acquire quality inputs due to different underlying reasons. This article analyzes factors underlining the adoption of improved technologies among sorghum farmers in Tanzania and evaluates profitability of grain production. A total of 212 individual farmers were interviewed through structured questionnaires from nine districts. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, probit regression model and gross margin analysis. Results show that 39.2%, 26.5%, 16.9%, 8.4% and 7.2% of sorghum farmers adopted seeds of improved varieties, insecticides, inorganic fertilizers, threshing machine and optimum seed rate, respectively. Probit estimates indicated that age, sex, number of years in school, group membership, farm size, availability of free seeds, seed accessibility, grain market accessibility and grain market price were the significant factors influencing adoption of these technologies. Adopters obtained higher profitability (822,288 Tshs/ha) than non-adopters (374,363 Tshs/ha) of improved varieties. Further policy actions are needed to improve determinants of adoption, breeding technologies and accessibility of agricultural inputs to ensure benefits to farmers and the sorghum sub-sector.

Empirical Association between Education and Happiness in a Social Context

Education level and the number of school years completed have an important function in each persons’ life and is considered as one of the most important aspects of socialization, fulfilment, income level, and general happiness. In particular, the number of school years completed is an important indicator which we intend to utilize to estimate educations’ impact on one’s life in general. Differently put, among many other aspects of educations’ impact on humans’ life, this article focuses on the relation between the highest numbers of school year completed and the general happiness of a person. The purpose of the article is to find evidence which proves that the general happiness and the highest school year completed are not statistically independent. Finding the correlation between these two variables is the objective of the article. For that purpose, we analyzed the empirical data provided by the General Social Survey (GSS) by conducting a chi-square statistics test to prove the existence of a relationship between the variables. Put another way, the research intends to analyze data provided by GSS2008.dta and test the null and alternative hypothesis by using chi-square statistics test and by applying the quantitative methodology of research. The data collected from 2,018 respondents provided by GSS are analyzed by utilizing State Software - as one of the most reliable and contemporary tools used by scientists nowadays.

Age-related axial length changes in adults: a review.

To investigate the origins of age-related decreases in axial length in the literature. A literature review was performed, including all articles regarding axial length changes with age. These data were combined with mean body length and education level for the countries of each study to assess their influence in a multivariate analysis. Furthermore, analyses were performed of how optical path length, used by optical biometers to measure axial length, is affected by the known age-related changes in the crystalline lens. The influence of other factors mentioned in the literature was also investigated. Seventeen cross-sectional studies were found that met the search criteria. The decrease in axial length over time was consistent across most of these studies. However, when plotted as a function of year of birth, mean body length and number of years in school, the data indicated an increase in length. Multivariate analysis confirmed the influence of body length (P=0.005) and birth year (P=0.017), but not age (P=0.50). Meanwhile, the lenticular changes due to aging and cataract formation cause a minor bias in the form of increased axial length measurements. Finally, a gradual thinning of the choroidal arteries was reported to cause an increase in axial length. The age-related decrease in axial length is mainly associated with gradual changes in increased body length and education level, while attenuated by minor biases in measurement procedure and thinning of the choroidal arteries.

Yam Farmers’ Adaptation Practices towards Climate Change Disaster in Cross River State, Nigeria

This paper focused broadly on exploring yam farmers’ adaptation practices towards climate change disaster in Cross River State, Nigeria. The study employed a survey design involving 150 respondents (farmers). Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression and descriptive statistics were employed to actualize the objectives while t-test was adopted to test the hypothesis. The results show that some of the socio-economic variables such as; age, number of years in school, farmer’s membership in associations, access to extension facilities and hectarage of farm land significantly influenced farmer’s adoption of climate change adaptation strategies at P&lt;0.05. The result also shows that the strategies adopted by farmers in order of widespread use by farmers were; multiple cropping, crop diversification, multiple planting dates, cover cropping and fertilizer application, irrigation practices, mulching, land fragmentation, tree planting, organic manure and fallowing. The paper recommended that farmers should organise sensitisation programs in their communities to educate themselves on the more effective measures to employ to adapt to climate change in their yam production.

Yam Farmers’ Adaptation Practices towards Climate Change Disaster in Cross River State, Nigeria

This paper focused broadly on exploring yam farmers’ adaptation practices towards climate change disaster in Cross River State, Nigeria. The study employed a survey design involving 150 respondents (farmers). Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression and descriptive statistics were employed to actualize the objectives while t-test was adopted to test the hypothesis. The results show that some of the socio-economic variables such as; age, number of years in school, farmer’s membership in associations, access to extension facilities and hectarage of farm land significantly influenced farmer’s adoption of climate change adaptation strategies at P&lt;0.05. The result also shows that the strategies adopted by farmers in order of widespread use by farmers were; multiple cropping, crop diversification, multiple planting dates, cover cropping and fertilizer application, irrigation practices, mulching, land fragmentation, tree planting, organic manure and fallowing. The paper recommended that farmers should organise sensitisation programs in their communities to educate themselves on the more effective measures to employ to adapt to climate change in their yam production.

Examining the effectiveness of prodira policy on improving human development index at Province of Gorontalo

The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of the implementation of an education program for the local people policy - Program Pendidikan untuk Rakyat (PRODIRA) in the improvement of Human Development Index (HDI) in the Province of Gorontalo. Through PRODIRA the local government has already issued the regional budget (APBD), which the impact of the budget allocation will be measured by the HDI. The research approach employed a qualitative method of semi-structured interview, observation, and focus group discussion on key informants, which involved in compilation and implementation of the PRODIRA in Gorontalo Province. The study result showed that the PRODIRA provided acceleration on educational equity for the population aged 16-18 years, which enrolled at the level of secondary education. PRODIRA has also significantly impact in increasing the Human Development Index of Gorontalo Province during 2012-2016, that it proved by the increasing the literacy rate from 95% to 99.81%, the average number of school years from 8 years to 12.88 years. The result also revealed that the PRODIRA is able to reduce levies in some schools and it increase acceleration of all education services to school age 16-18 years through accelerated national education service. The research recommended that the central government needs to encourage local governments to innovate in developing the PRODIRA in order to achieve the target of to ards the nation of Indonesia is independent and highly competitive in 2025.

Social determinants and cardiovascular disease mortality in Panama, 2012\u20132016

BackgroundThe aims of this study were to determine the geographic and time variation of social determinants of health (SDH) and cardiovascular disease (CVD) mortality in Panama from 2012 to 2016, and to identify which of the SDH has the strongest correlation with a socioeconomic index (SEI).MethodsWe conducted an ecological study obtaining mortality from the National Mortality Register and socioeconomic variables derived from the National Household Survey (NHS). The International Classification of Diseases 10th revision codes I20–I25 and I60–I69 were used for ischemic heart disease (IHD) and stroke, respectively. Standardized age-adjusted mortality rates were calculated by direct method. Mortality rates and socioeconomic variables were evaluated together in a panel data model. A SEI was developed from factorial analysis by principal components with a polychoric correlation matrix. Provinces and regions were categorized in tertiles according to median value of the SEI score.ResultsThe NHS evaluated an average of 15,919 households per year. The mean of age throughout the study period was 41 years. The average monthly income increased, from US$ (SD) 331.94 (5.38) in 2012, to 406.24 (5.81) in 2016, whereas the social security health coverage remained in a range of 57–58%. The mean number of school years was twelve. Significant geographical and temporal variations in social determinants and mortality rates were observed throughout the country. Colon, categorized in the middle tertile according to the SEI, presented higher IHD mortality rates. Darién (in the lowest SEI tertile) Colón and Herrera had higher stroke mortality rates. The SEI categorized indigenous territories in the lowest tertile. Total years of education was the strongest correlated variable with the SEI, when we excluded the population living in indigenous territories. However, when this population was included, social security coverage had the strongest correlation with the SEI.ConclusionWe observed geographical and temporal disparities in SDH and CVD mortality rates. Further epidemiological studies are warranted in the provinces of Colón, Darien, Herrera and Los Santos to explore in-depth the higher CVD mortality rates observed in these provinces.

Household Perspectives on Minority Language Maintenance and Loss: Language in the Small Spaces

Household Perspectives on Minority Language Maintenance and Loss: Language in the Small Spaces

Maximum gait speed is associated with a wide range of cognitive functions in Japanese older adults with a Clinical Dementia Rating of 0.5.

Physical and cognitive functions are mutually associated. However, it is unknown which markers of physical functions or body composition are most strongly associated with cognition. Here, we explored the association between body composition/physical performance and comprehensive neuropsychological assessments in an effort to identify reliable markers of cognition among factors in body composition/physical performance, including both usual and maximum gait speeds. We examined a total of 161 Japanese individuals (71 men, 90 women; aged 76.3 ± 7.2 years) with a Clinical Dementia Rating of 0.5 and a Mini-Mental State Examination score >24. A battery of neuropsychological assessments, physical functional assessments and measurements of body composition was carried out. We conducted a multiple regression analysis to investigate the associations between cognitive performance and the factors in body composition and physical performance with adjustments for age, sex, and number of school years. Maximum gait speed was the factor most widely associated with cognitive performance among the factors of body composition and physical performance. Maximum gait speed might be the best marker for cognition in this population of older individuals. Geriatr Gerontol Int 2018; 18: 1323-1329.

Intergenerational Effects of Education on Risky Health Behaviours and Long-Term Health

This paper estimates the causal effects of parental education on their children's risky health behaviours and health status. I study the intergenerational effects of a compulsory schooling reform in Germany after World War II. Implemented across federal states at different points in time, the reform increased the minimum number of school years from eight to nine. Instrumental variable estimates and difference-in-differences estimates reveal that increases in maternal schooling reduce children's probability to smoke and to be overweight in adolescence. The effects persist into adulthood, reducing chronic conditions that often result from unhealthy lifestyles. No such effects can be identified for paternal education. Increased investments in children's education and improvements in their peer environment early in life are important for explaining the effects. Changes in family income, family stability, fertility and parental health-related behaviours are less relevant empirically. The intergenerational effects of education on health and health-related behaviours exceed the direct effects. Studies neglecting the intergenerational perspective substantially understate the full causal effects.

Model for the separate collection of packaging waste in Portuguese low-performing recycling regions

Separate collection of packaging waste (glass; plastic/metals; paper/cardboard), is currently a widespread practice throughout Europe. It enables the recovery of good quality recyclable materials. However, separate collection performance are quite heterogeneous, with some countries reaching higher levels than others. In the present work, separate collection of packaging waste has been evaluated in a low-performance recycling region in Portugal in order to investigate which factors are most affecting the performance in bring-bank collection system.The variability of separate collection yields (kg per inhabitant per year) among 42 municipalities was scrutinized for the year 2015 against possible explanatory factors. A total of 14 possible explanatory factors were analysed, falling into two groups: socio-economic/demographic and waste collection service related. Regression models were built in an attempt to evaluate the individual effect of each factor on separate collection yields and predict changes on the collection yields by acting on those factors. The best model obtained is capable to explain 73% of the variation found in the separate collection yields. The model includes the following statistically significant indicators affecting the success of separate collection yields: i) inhabitants per bring-bank; ii) relative accessibility to bring-banks; iii) degree of urbanization; iv) number of school years attended; and v) area.The model presented in this work was developed specifically for the bring-bank system, has an explanatory power and quantifies the impact of each factor on separate collection yields. It can therefore be used as a support tool by local and regional waste management authorities in the definition of future strategies to increase collection of recyclables of good quality and to achieve national and regional targets.

Cancer mortality among adolescents and young adults: A historical cohort in a reference institution for cancer treatment in Santa Catarina/South of Brazil 2002–2013

ObjectiveTo identify factors associated with early mortality from cancer in adolescents and young adults in a reference institution for oncology treatment in Santa Catarina, Brazil. MethodsWe studied a retrospective cohort with an intentional sample of adolescents (ages 15–19) and young adults (ages 20–29) diagnosed with neoplasia. Secondary data were acquired from January 2002 to December 2013. Kaplan–Meier and Cox regression methods were used for survival analysis. Logistical analysis tested the association between early death (lower tertile between diagnosis and death, according to cancer type) and clinical or sociodemographic variables. ResultsWe included a total of 889 cases with an average age of 23, with similar gender distributions and a predominance of Caucasian ethnicity. Using the Cox framework of proportional risks adjusted for neoplasia types and gender, individuals with non-hematological neoplasia (solid tumors) presented a 47% higher risk of dying when compared with individuals diagnosed with leukemias and lymphomas (HR: 1.47; 95%CI: 1.12–1.93). Chances of death were 31% higher for males than for females (HR: 1.31; 95%CI: 1.02–1.69). When adjusting for type of neoplasia and age (15–24 and 25–29) the risk of death by cancer was 51% greater in individuals diagnosed with non-hematological neoplasia when compared with individuals diagnosed with leukemias and lymphomas (HR: 1.51; 95%CI: 1.15–1.99). The chance of death by cancer in patients under the age of 25 was 33% greater when compared to that in older patients between the ages of 25 and 29 (HR: 1.33; 95%CI: 1.04–1.75). In multiple regression analysis, factors associated with early mortality from cancer were the number of years in school (P=0.011) and time between diagnosis and start of treatment (P<0.001). ConclusionsThe sample studied with a longer period of time between diagnosis and the start of treatment (access to oncology therapy) and with fewer years in school showed that these factors had important roles in early death from cancer for the observed individuals. This must be considered when planning and identifying risk in young cancer patients in order to lower the impact of the disease on mortality for this age group.

Factors associated with HIV and HBV co-infection in Northern Thailand

ObjectiveTo identify factors associated with HIV and hepatitis B virus (HBV) co-infection in Northern Thailand. MethodsWe tested 355 newly diagnosed HIV-infected subjects for hepatitis B surface antigen, hepatitis B surface antibody, and hepatitis B core antibody by using immunochromatographic and ELISA methods. Cases were positive for one or more of the HBV markers and controls were negative for all HBV markers. All study subjects were asked to complete a questionnaire to identify the associations between variables. We used logistic regression model to evaluate the associations between demographic and behavioral variables and HIV/HBV co-infection. ResultsA total of 41 cases and 83 controls were suitable to analyze in the study. Among them, 15.0% were males, 40.3% were 30–39 years old, 62.9% were married, 18.6% were illiterate and 89.5% were employed. Besides, 26 cases (23.4%) had a history of a blood transfusion, 12.9% had a history of jaundice, 29.0% had a CD4 cell count ≤ 200 cells/mm3, 0.8% were intravenous drug user, 29.8% tattooed, 64.5% had a body piercing, 12.1% were commercial sex workers, 11.3% had first sexual intercourse at age ≤ 15 years old, 6.5% were homosexual, and no one had a history of HBV vaccination. After controlling for all possible confounder factors in the multiple logistic regression model, we found two factors associated with HIV/HBV co-infection: number of years in school and CD4 cell count. Subjects with no education were more likely to have HIV/HBV co-infection, which was 7.07 times (odds ratio = 7.07, 95% confidence interval = 1.77–28.24) greater than those with 7 years of education group. Subjects with CD4 count ≤ 200 cells/mm3 were less likely to have HIV/HBV co-infection than those with a CD count ≥ 200 cells/mm3 (odds ratio = 0.35, 95% confidence interval = 0.13–0.94). ConclusionsOur findings suggest that having a good education and having a good immune status are a protective factor of HIV/HBV co-infection. A practical approach would be a provision of wide access to general and sex education on the risk and prevention of HIV, HBV, and a promotion of HBV immunization.

School failure in students who are normal-hearing or deaf: with or without cochlear implants.

To evaluate the impact of cochlear implants on the school failure of deaf who attend mainstream classes by comparing them to their normal-hearing peers as well as deaf without cochlear implants. This case–control study included participants aged 8–18 years. The number of school years failed was obtained from school records. The greatest differences in achievement levels were found between hearing students and those who were deaf without cochlear implants. Cochlear implants provide educational opportunities for hearing-impaired students, yet those without cochlear implants remain at a great disadvantage. These findings suggest that measures promoting greater equity and quality for all deaf students allow achievement levels closer to those of the not impaired.