Number Of Reindeer Research Articles

Predation on European wild forest reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) by wolves (Canis lupus) in Finland

AbstractIt is generally accepted that predation by wolves Canis lupus is one of the major factors limiting densities of woodland caribou Rangifer tarandus caribou in North America. Conversely, little is known about the role of European wild forest reindeer R. t. fennicus as wolf prey, or about the influence of wolf predation on populations of this rare subspecies. This relationship was examined in east‐central Finland, where wild forest reindeer coexist with moose Alces alces at a numerical ratio of c. 1 reindeer to 1.5 moose. During the study, moose were clearly the primary prey of wolves. Reindeer were, however, an important part of wolf diet in summer, autumn and early winter, when their remains comprised roughly 20–50% of all food items identified in wolf scats. Wolves exhibited a slight preference for reindeer over moose as prey during early winter (November–December) when the reindeer were moving towards their wintering ranges. Virtually no reindeer were killed by wolves during midwinter (January–March). This held also for a pack whose territory was located in the middle of the wintering range of reindeer, where reindeer outnumbered moose during the winter months. After the approximate ratio of wolves to reindeer increased from 0.004 (1998) to 0.02 (2000), wolf predation became the most common source of mortality (50%) for reindeer. The annual net increase in the reindeer population decreased from 13% to 7% because of increased wolf predation. The results indicate that wolf predation was an important factor limiting reindeer population growth. Wolves were, however, unable to prevent entirely the number of reindeer from increasing, partly owing to behavioural traits used by reindeer during winter and calving times.

The Norwegian system for wild reindeer management — major development since the 19th century

In the 19th century the hunting of wild reindeer was relatively unrestricted in Norway. This, combined with a more efficient hunting, caused a severe reduction in the number of wild reindeer at the turn of the century. The national authorities responded by stricter hunting control, and in 1930 hunting quotas related to the size of the wild reindeer areas were introduced. The Ministry of Agriculture decided the number of licences, and the number of wild reindeer increased. During the 1950s a major controversy between the Ministry and local people arose in the Snøhetta area. People there increased their power over the wild reindeer management by organising a "Wild Reindeer Board" (WRB). This inspired people in other districts to organise similar boards. These WRBs had no formal power according to the law, but became important managers of the herds. An official organisation for each wild reindeer area, the Wild Reindeer Committee (WRC), was introduced in 1988. Since the WRCs are official institutions, legal power is decentralised to them.

Wild and semi-domesticated reindeer in Russia: status, population dynamics and trends under the present social and economic conditions

At present (in 1999) there are approximately 1.5 million semi-domesticated and 1.3 million wild reindeer in Russia. The co-existence of these two forms remains a major problem. Reindeer herding has declined while the number of wild reindeer has increased during the last 10 years. The main causes of these changes are social and economic. The 1960s and 1970s were characterised by a deliberate attempt to eradicate the nomadic way of life of reindeer herders. It was relatively easy to introduce public (kolkhoz or sovkhoz) reindeer herding in the Nenets, Chukchi and Komi-Izhem areas where large-scale reindeer herding was typical and, as a result, there were almost 1 million reindeer in collectives in the extreme north-eastern part of the USSR. At the same time reindeer herding deteriorated among the Khanty, Mansi, Evenk, Even, Selkup peoples. Perestroika in the 1990s resulted in the formation of a market economy. Collective reindeer herding declined and the number of semi-domesticated reindeer decreased during a period of gradual return to private ownership of reindeer. The largest region of reindeer herding is now the Nenets tegion in the north-west of Russia. Successful sympatric existence of wild and semi-domesticated reindeer is not possible. The Taimyr wild reindeer population numbers about 500-600 000 reindeer. From 1971 to 1981 not less than 700 000 reindeer in this population were shot. Ecological and economic control over them has now been lost. There are approximately 200 000 animals in Yakutia. The number of wild reindeer here has grown following the decline of reindeer husbandry. Yakut and Even reindeer herders believe that the decline has been due to wild reindeer drawing semi-domesticated teindeer away. At present 13 aboriginal peoples in northern Russia engage in reindeer herding. Five former reindeer herding peoples have given up herding but thete are signs of improvement in the situation among those peoples which have retained reindeer herding culture following the gradual restoration of private ownership of reindeer. In the 20 regions where only a few wild reindeer remain hunting should be prohibited and measures should be taken for protecting and restoring the populations. There are approximately 6000 reindeer on Novaya Zemlya; a further 6000 animals live on the Novosibirsk islands. The Red Data Book of Russia should include rare and disappearing populations both on the periphery of the species' distribution and inside it to preserve and restore the species and to conserve its genetic diversity.

Managing reindeer and wildlife on Alaska's Seward Peninsula

When reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) were introduced to Alaska's Seward Peninsula between 1892 and 1902, other ungulates were not present and large predators were either absent or less abundant than after reindeer were established. During the next 100 years reindeer numbers and distribution increased and declined precipitously on the Seward Peninsula; wildlife species repopulated this region through natural processes or translocations by man; the non-Native human population of Alaska increased dramatically and wildlife management became an issue of national concern creating diverse public desires regarding resource use; and both range and wildlife became intensively managed through complex, politicized processes. This paper provides an historical overview of reindeer and wildlife abundance on the Seward Peninsula during the 20th century and describes the effects of wildlife on the reindeer industry. Cooperative public processes have been initiated to bring diverse public interests together; meld indigenous, scientific and local knowledge of resources; and supplement governmental wildlife management programmes. Even so, the Seward Peninsula reindeer industry has been severely impacted by wildlife, especially caribou (R. t. granti).

Status, directions and priorities of reindeer husbandry research in Sweden

Emerging out of small-scale reindeer farming, large-scale reindeer husbandry in Sweden and Norway was developed to counteract resource scarcity caused by depleted wild reindeer numbers and human population growth above what the former subsistence economy could sustain. Current numbers of reindeer are likely lower and fluctuate less than before wild reindeer were depleted and reindeer husbandry started on a large scale. Productivity is about 7-8 kg of meat per head in winter stock. Current problems arise from a multitude of circumstances, some of them related to the problems of practising a subsistence type of living in close connection with a modern industrialized society. Problems include: low production, typical for harsh conditions and use of an unimproved animal stock; the inability to support a modern standard of living solely from reindeer; the collective access to grazing grounds which makes internal management difficult; unclear legal rights resulting in conflicting interests with other land users and formal owners; and the relatively low number of people directly involved in reindeer husbandry. Possible long-term consequences are marginalization and the loss of land use rights, with negative consequences for the Saami as an indigenous people. Reindeer husbandry research addresses these problems by integrating human-ecological and socio-economic aspects with traditional natural science orientated research on reindeer husbandry problems. This research is funded by a multitude of sources. Independently of this, research is conducted on Saami life and culture in relation to reindeer husbandry at various universities, especially within social sciences and arts.

Land use and climate change on the Yamal Peninsula of north-west Siberia: some ecological and socio-economic implications

Compared to climate, land use change is expected to comprise a more important component of global change in the coming decades. However, climate is anticipated to supass land use as a factor later in the next century, particularly in the Arctic. Discussed here are the implications of land use and climate change on the Yamal peninsula of north-west Siberia, homeland of the Yamal Nenets. Since the discovery of super-giant natural gas fields in the 1960s, extensive exploration has resulted in direct withdrawal of large areas for infrastructure development and associated disturbance regimes have led to cumulative impacts on thousands of additional hectares of land. The land withdrawals have pushed a relatively consistent or increasing number of reindeer onto progressively smaller parcels of pasture. This has led to excessive grazing and trampling of lichens, bryophytes and shrubs and, in many areas, erosion of sandy soils via deflation. The low Arctic tundra lies entirely within the continuous permafrost zone and ice-rich substrates are widespread. One implication of this is that both anthropogenic and zoogenic distubance regimes may easily initiate thermokarst and aeolian rosion, leading to significant further losses of pastures. Even without industrial distubance, a slight change of the climate would result in massive thermokarst erosion. This would have negative consequences equal to or greater than the mechanical distubances described above. The synergistic effects of land use coupled with climate, change therefore have profound implication for the ecosystems of Yamal, as well as the future of the Nenets culture, society and economy.

Reindeer herding and petroleum development on Poluostrov Yamal: sustainable or mutually incompatible uses?

AbstractThe Yamal Nenets have exploited reindeer via hunting and/or husbandry in northwest Siberia for several hundred years, although wild reindeer have been virtually absent on Poluostrov Yamal since the early 1900s. Nonetheless, the region retains large populations of wild animals, indicating that nomadic pastoralists, semi-domestic animals, and wildlife were not competing vigorously for resources or space prior to industrialization. Natural-gas development is a relative newcomer to the region, but has already had a significant impact on the bio-physical and socioeconomic environments. The withdrawal of lands for industrial infrastructure, in addition to direct and cumulative impacts from three decades of exploration, has led to a serious decline in the quantity and quality of the remaining tundrasuitable for reindeer pasture.Available records indicate that some preferred fur-bearing game species have been significantly reduced in recent years, primarily by non-natives. At the same time, it appears that extensive grazing by the reindeer themselves is having an overall negative effect on the area's pastures. Specifically, reindeer grazing is resulting in the thinning of the organic layer on well-drained ground and the exposure of fine-grained sands. The surfaces of these patches are highly erodable and unstable, therefore spreading easily as long as they remain unvegetated. The significant expansion of such areas is a genuine threat as long as, first, industrial development continues to degrade the land, and, second, the numbers of reindeer remain at current levels or increase.

Economical importance of Finnish reindeer industry

Within 15 years favourable weather conditions, antiparasite medication, supplementary feed, modern technology, calf slaughter and other factors all contributed to a vast increase in reindeer, and hence reindeer meat production, so much so that by the early 1990s the total number of reindeer was approaching 430 000, and reindeer meat production exceeded 4 million kg. Due to excess numbers of reindeer, stocks had to be culled. At the same time problems arose with the processing of reindeer meat. As a result, demand slumped and prices plummeted. In a few years the outlook for reindeer management changed drastically. Since then the profession has been marked by uncertainty and change. The number of reindeer is now below the permitted level. In the 1996/97 season, number of living reindeer in herds totalled over 202 000, slaughtered reindeer 80 000 (Fig. 1) and meat production about 2 million kg. Income from slaughtered animals amounted to FIM 58 million.

Land use and climate change on the Yamal Peninsula of north-west Siberia: some ecological and socio-economic implications

Compared to climate, land use change is expected to comprise a more important component of global change in the coming decades. However, climate is anticipated to supass land use as a factor later in the next century, particularly in the Arctic. Discussed here are the implications of land use and climate change on the Yamal peninsula of north-west Siberia, homeland of the Yamal Nenets. Since the discovery of super-giant natural gas fields in the 1960s, extensive exploration has resulted in direct withdrawal of large areas for infrastructure development and associated disturbance regimes have led to cumulative impacts on thousands of additional hectares of land. The land withdrawals have pushed a relatively consistent or increasing number of reindeer onto progressively smaller parcels of pasture. This has led to excessive grazing and trampling of lichens, bryophytes and shrubs and, in many areas, erosion of sandy soils via deflation. The low Arctic tundra lies entirely within the continuous permafrost zone and ice-rich substrates are widespread. One implication of this is that both anthropogenic and zoogenic distubance regimes may easily initiate thermokarst and aeolian rosion, leading to significant further losses of pastures. Even without industrial distubance, a slight change of the climate would result in massive thermokarst erosion. This would have negative consequences equal to or greater than the mechanical distubances described above. The synergistic effects of land use coupled with climate, change therefore have profound implication for the ecosystems of Yamal, as well as the future of the Nenets culture, society and economy.

Wild reindeer Rangifer tarandus (L.) in Chukotka

We reviewed historical records of the abundance and distribution of wild reindeer {Rangifer tarandus L.) in Chukotka and studied reindeer numbers, distribution and behavior from 1983 to 1993. There were large numbers of wild reindeer in Chukotka until the end of the eighteenth century, but during the nineteenth century the population declined probably from intensive harvest after the introduction of firearms by the Cossacks. During the nineteenth century herding of domestic reindeer also increased, and reindeer herders continued to hunt wild reindeer intensively. During the 1950s there were only about 8500 wild reindeer in two separate herds in Chukotka. By the late 1970s the wild reindeer population had increased to about 11 000. Ten years later we estimated 16 534 reindeer, and found only one contiguous population. Presently, the population calves and spends the summer in the Anadyr Uplands and migrates west and southwest to spend the winter in forest tundra and northern taiga regions. Predators, primarily wolves and brown bears, kill a significant number of calves. Today, the wild reindeer in Chukotka coexist with 300 000 domestic reindeer. However, current costs of gasoline and helicopters make it prohibitive to herd reindeer in much of central Chukotka, so that wild reindeer have room for expansion. Poaching is a major conservation problem. Poachers shoot wild reindeer from helicopters to obtain velvet antlers. Leaders of domestic reindeer cooperatives encourage poaching by telling people that wild reindeer are in fact just stray domestic reindeer and there is no enforcement of game laws.

In Memoriam: Edvard K. Barth, 1913-1996

By a curious coincidence, two of Norway's most distinguished ornithologists, Edvard K. Barth and Holger Holgersen, died on the same day, 23 April 1996. Edvard K. Barth was born in Trondheim on 19 April 1913. From childhood he was interested in nature, especially birds. He managed to complete his studies in zoology at the University of Oslo before the Germans closed the University. A patriot by heart, he served as a member of the military secret service division XU of Hjemmefronten, one of the most successful resistance units in Europe, from 1941 until the end of the war, and was in charge of XU for all southern Norway after 1944. He took great risks but avoided the German Gestapo, as did his fiance, Sonja. Fascinated by the mountains of Rondane in central Norway, he made numerous visits to this area with close friends, equipped with tent and sleeping bags. Once, the famous Norwegian explorer, Thor Heyerdal, then also a student of zoology, accompanied him. Edvard became a keen field zoologist, for many years earning his living as a freelance photographer and writer. After the war he built a small cabin high at Nessetra in the birch region of Rondane. Here the famous Norwegian painter, Harald Sohlberg, had made his painting Vinternatt i Rondane (winter night in Rondane), recently elected as the Norwegian National Painting. Edvard lived year-round in his isolated cabin in the mountains until 1954, when he became the curator responsible for bird collections at the Zoological Museum in Oslo until he retired in 1980. He kept his office in the museum and worked up collected material until a few days before his death. Edvard produced 206 scientific and popular papers. He earned his D.Sc. in 1968 with a study on systematics in the Laridae. Deeply interested in wildlife management, he took an active part in discussions and wrote in hunting journals and newspapers. He joined the AOU in 1957 and became a Corresponding Fellow in 1974. He attended the International Ornithological Congress in Helsinki in 1958. Later in life he became increasingly interested in the primitive, prehistoric methods of reindeer hunting with bows and arrows. In company with his wife, Sonja, he mapped in Rondane a large number of ancient reindeer traps, which included guiding fences and blinds from which to shoot with bows and arrows. He became a leading authority in this field; his work came to be appreciated by professional archaeologists who initially were skeptical. A major paper on this topic was completed just before his death. Edvard is survived by Sonja and their two daughters. A more complete memorial, with portrait, appeared in Vdr Fuglefauna 19:79-80, 1996.

Some Impacts of Overgrazing by Reindeer in Finnmark, Norway

Some impacts of reindeer grazing on Finnmark's landscape are briefly described. Information on the impacts was gathered mostly by surveying 17 sample transects in the field, often 90 m in length; as well as by examining other localities in Finnmark, particularly the area around Ifjordfjellet. The results of the surveys along fences as well as in the open countryside are given. These show that much degradation has taken place along fences and that adjacent to the fence more than half the soil can be exposed to trampling and the weather. At Ifjordfjellet damage along 22.4 km of fence separating summer grazings from spring and winter grazings was severe or very severe (> 30% bare soil exposed) over 39% of its distance. Land alongside an 8.0 km long fence built to aid management of the reindeer herds in summer was even more degraded, with 56% of its length on the 'inner' side severely or worse damaged, and 70% on the 'outer' side. In open landscapes erosion by tracking, trampling and the weather is most likely in wet peaty hollows; on slopes steeper than 7 degrees where soils are peaty or 13 degrees where they are mineral-based; at the edge of terrace landforms or where drumlins occur; and especially where deep sandy soils occur in eskers or other fluvioglacial land-forms. Soil is being denuded at rates of 1-3 mm per year. Evidence for reindeer grazing is widespread throughout Finnmark: from the almost ubiquitious presence of dung; to the disappearance of lichens by trampling in summer grazings and by overgrazing in winter grazings; to the presence of bare soil in many localities. Where reindeer grazing is confined either by fences or topography, degradational thresholds are lowered so that, for instance, peaty and mineral soils begin to erode on slopes as low as 4 degrees. This degradation has mostly come about in the last two or three decades as reindeer numbers have increased markedly, often by a factor of 2 or 3.

Remote sensing, a tool for reindeer range land management

AbstractThe Finnish reindeer-herding area lies in the northern boreal forest zone. The herding area is divided into 57 reindeer management districts with a total area of 114,355 km2 (excluding water areas). The official number of reindeer in the year 1992 was 263,789, or 2.3 reindeer per square kilometre. In 1946 the density was only about one reindeer per square kilometre. The increased pressure on the mid-winter lichen pastures has reduced the volume of lichen. Also the decreased area of old coniferous forests with arboreal lichens has diminished the supply of food during the late-winter months. The lack of suitable winter pastures has led to the need for supplementary feeding with hay.The intention of this study was to develop and test methods for cost-effective reindeer range land inventory and to assess the present state of pastures in seven districts. Use was made of Landsat 5 TM satellite imagery that was processed with remote sensing and GIS software. The analysis of well-known field sites proved the image classification to be between 80 and 90% accurate. By comparing field data and classification results, estimates can be made on the available fodder reserves in the different pasture types. The results show that mid-winter pastures are both scarce and degraded in six of the seven areas investigated. Only one area (Muotkatunturi) has mid-winter pastures in reasonably good condition. Late-winter pastures with arboreal lichens are more widespread than mid-winter pastures and determine the amount of additional winter feeding required. Summer pastures are abundant in all seven reindeer-herding districts and are therefore not a limiting factor. The method used is objective, inexpensive, and fast when compared to conventional methods. Information can be produced on the quantity and quality of reindeer pastures. This knowledge can be used to make better estimates of the natural grazing capacity of reindeer districts in Finland.

Cerebrospinal Elaphostrongylosis in Sheep in Northern Norway

Pathologic examination of four sheep from northern Norway exhibiting neurologic signs of paresis, paralysis and vestibular system disease revealed nematodes in the central nervous system (CNS). The worms were identified as Elaphostrongylus rangiferi Mitskevich, 1960, the elaphostrongylid nematode of reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus). Microscopic lesions found in the CNS were focal traumatic encephalomyelomalacia caused by migrating worms, eosinophilic meningitis and choroiditis, lymphohistiocytic and nematode granulomas, and perineural infiltrations. The disease occurred in November and December 1990, after the sheep had been on pasture in areas frequented by considerable numbers of reindeer.

Reindeer and magic numbers

All parties to stereotyping negotiate and share somewhat overlapping yet contradictory models of themselves and of others. These models color anticipation, enactment, interpretation, and recollection of social behavior. Reindeer‐owning, entailing breeding, herding, and harvesting of the animals, is built into the consensual stereotype of the Saami, even though this occupation characterizes only ten percent of the population of this minority people. Yet virtually all Saami accept and manipulate the coin of reindeer when dealing with strangers, whether Saami or not. One could assert that a simple algorithm summarizes the inflation of herd‐size for owners and the invention of herd by non‐owners of reindeer.

Research as the basis for decision-making in reindeer husbandry

The principal challenge for Norwegian reindeer husbandry in Finnmark today - seen from the viewpoint of both the central political authorities and the industry itself - is disequilibrium between the number of reindeer and their forage resources. Productivity is low, the economy is worse and a large number of reindeer owners have an unsatisfactory number of animals and an unsatisfactory income. The animals are becoming smaller and smaller. Social and economic problems are increasing. There is an obvious danger of long term damage to the pasture areas. How long term, nobody knows. There are no clear research results to guide us but, I am glad to say, research is under way and satellite imagery represents a good, new tool. Research must have a free hand - but it cannot be fully independent. Researchers must try to direct their activities towards providing both the industry and the politicians with a solid basis on which to base their decisions. It is therefore my hope that «productive» research receives as high priority as possible. With limited funding available for research and the relatively small size of the indus-try, it is important that its requirements and its own demands for help from researchers be attended to.

Benefits from calf harvest

In spite of the growing numbers of reindeer in the husbandry area of Finland, calf/ female ratio has increased and natural mortality- rate decreased since the middle of the 1970s. This has occurred independant of supplementa­ ry feeding. Data presented here are based on of­ ficial statistics from all 56 herding associations for the period of 1960-1987. The natural rate of mortality of reindeer was inversely related to the rate of harvest of calves throughout the pe­ with the proportion of winter digging (r = 0.621, n = 56, p 0.05). This applied also to productivity (r = 0.466, p 0.05, respectively), though not to the calf/female ratio (r = 0.191, p > 0.05; r = 0.121, p > 0.05, respectively). Sup­ plementary feeding itself resulted in increased production of meat, owing to an increase in the number of reindeer.

Effects of artificial feeding on the body weight, nutritional status and rumen function in reindeer

In F i n l a n d the l ichen grazing areas of semi-domesticated reindeer are decreasing, especially in the forested part of L a p l a n d , where 2/3 of the reindeer are raised. Simultaneously the number of reindeer is increasing rapidly and the supplementary feeding of reindeer is expanding. A feeding experiment was carried out dur ing winter 1986 in Kaamanen F i e l d Station. Al together 36 female reindeer were fed w i t h five commercia l fodders di f fer ing in feed components and chemical c o m p o s i t i o n and w i t h lichens. The nutr i t ional condi t ion of reindeer was f o l l o w e d by weighing and b l o o d samples. The digest ibilities of six natural and artificial reindeer fodders were also studied by in vitro micro-digest ion technique w i t h rumen l iquors f r o m six reindeer and one sheep. D u r i n g the three months feeding per iod the b o d y weights of art i f ic ial ly fed groups remained unchanged or increased. O n l y the l ichen fed group lost body weight and it differed significantly f r o m the art i f ic ial ly fed groups in A p r i l . The bir th weight and the body weight of three-week-old calves correlated w i t h the body weight of hinds just p r i o r to calving (r=0.391 and 0.491). The daily weight gain of calves dur ing the first weeks of their life (age between 1 5 2 9 days) differed between groups. In February the creatinine, cholesterol , tr iglyceride and phosphate concentration of serum differed between feeding groups. In A p r i l there were also differences in total prote in , a lbumin , gammaglobul in and calc ium concentrat ion . H o w e v e r , o n l y the l ichen fed group differed signif icantly f r o m the other groups. There was significant correlat ion between the daily intake of digestible crude prote in (g/W 0 7 5 ) and total serum proteins (r=0.425). A l s o the dai ly intake of ca lc ium and phosphorus correlated w i t h serum calc ium and phosphate concentrat ion. The in vitro digestibilities (dry matter disappearance) of both ground (Cladina spp.) and arboreal (Bryoria spp.) lichens were lower in l iquor f r o m sheep that f r o m reindeer. Especial ly the digestibilities of ground and arboreal lichens were l o w (14.2% and 47 .2% I V D M D ) in l i q u o r f r o m sheep. D r y hay (Phleum pratense) had higher digest ibi l i ty in l i q u o r f r o m sheep than in l i q u o r f r o m reindeer. W h e n using l iquor f r o m lichen fed and art i f ic ial ly fed reindeer the digestibi l i ty of d r y hay was lower than in l iquor f r o m the reindeer grazed in natural winter pastures. A r b o r e a l lichens had higher digest ibil i ty in l iquor f r o m artif icial ly fed and naturally grazed reindeer than in that f r o m lichen fed reindeer. The digest ibi l i ty of ground lichens was lower in l i q u o r f r o m natural ly grazed reindeer than in l iquor f r o m artif icial ly fed and lichen fed reindeer. C o m m e r c i a l reindeer fodder had lower digestibil i ty in l i q u o r f r o m lichen fed than artif icially fed and naturally grazed reindeer.

The decline of agriculture and the rise of extractive industry in the Soviet North

Abstract The article focuses on the decline in agriculture in the Soviet North as evinced by a comparison of Soviet official statistics over the past few decades. It can be demonstrated in terms of grain production in the Karelian or Komi ASSRs, beef or milk production in the Khanty‐Mansi AO, and even in terms of reindeer numbers throughout the Soviet North. This decline has coincided with massive expansion in the extractive industries in the North, and the author implies that the two trends are related, through competition for the limited available labor pool or possibly, in the case of the reindeer, through damage to the natural environment. (The translation is by William Barr, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon.)

Reindeer Husbandry in Finland

To a growing extent reindeer husbandry in Finland occurs side by side with modern industrial and urban society. The reindeer economy has been on the losing side. However, because ofthe amount of work invested in the reindeer, the number of these animals is larger than before. It seems clear that the number of reindeer is at its maximum, as there is no longer excess capacity of lichen land for reindeer to graze in winter.