Number Of Fixations Research Articles

What is the visual behaviour and attentional effort of football players in different positions during a real 11v11 game? A pilot study.

Visual perception has been defined as the first step to a football player's decision-making process and it plays an important role in performance in sport. The skill of focussing to prioritize relevant cues has been also considered crucial in sport. This pilot study aims to explore the visual behaviour and attentional effort of three football players (mean age 19 ± 0 years old) in specific-role positions; Right-winger (RW), Centre-Midfielder (CM) and Left-Back (LB), in the five seconds before receiving the ball from their teammate. Twenty-two male football players performed an 11v11 game, where 24 game sequences (trials) from which 166 fixations were recorded and analysed via the Tobii Pro eye-movement registration glasses and software. The gaze behaviour dependent variables were the mean of fixation duration (FD), time to first fixation (TTF), both measured in milliseconds (ms), and the number of fixations (NF) on eight areas of interest (AOIs). AOIs include teammate with and without the ball, opponent without the ball, space around teammate with and without the ball, space around opponent without the ball, ball and undefined. The mean pupil diameter (PD) correlates to the attentional effort and was measured in millimetres (mm). Descriptive statistics showed nonregular search rate data between the participants in FD, TTF, NF on the AOIs. Mean FD on the ball: (CM, 270 ms), (RW, 570 ms), (CM, 380 ms). They also presented differences in the mean PD during play; (CM: 2.90 mm ± 0.26), (RW: 2.74 mm ± 0.30), (LB 2.77mm ± 0.27). Albeit the sample size was small, the findings demonstrated a promising way to measure the on-field perceptual-cognitive abilities of football players according to their specific positions, since different playing roles revealed to present distinctive visual and attentional patterns. This could potentially assist in tailoring players 'visual and focus training.

What is the visual behaviour and attentional effort of football players in different positions during a real 11v11 game? A pilot study

Background Visual perception has been defined as the first step to a football player’s decision-making process and it plays an important role in performance in sport. The skill of focussing to prioritize relevant cues has been also considered crucial in sport. This pilot study aims to explore the visual behaviour and attentional effort of three football players (mean age 19 ± 0 years old) in specific-role positions; Right-winger (RW), Centre-Midfielder (CM) and Left-Back (LB), in the five seconds before receiving the ball from their teammate. Methods Twenty-two male football players performed an 11v11 game, where 24 game sequences (trials) from which 166 fixations were recorded and analysed via the Tobii Pro eye-movement registration glasses and software. The gaze behaviour dependent variables were the mean of fixation duration (FD), time to first fixation (TTF), both measured in milliseconds (ms), and the number of fixations (NF) on eight areas of interest (AOIs). AOIs include teammate with and without the ball, opponent without the ball, space around teammate with and without the ball, space around opponent without the ball, ball and undefined. The mean pupil diameter (PD) correlates to the attentional effort and was measured in millimetres (mm). Results Descriptive statistics showed nonregular search rate data between the participants in FD, TTF, NF on the AOIs. Mean FD on the ball: (CM, 270 ms), (RW, 570 ms), (CM, 380 ms). They also presented differences in the mean PD during play; (CM: 2.90 mm ± 0.26), (RW: 2.74 mm ± 0.30), (LB 2.77mm ± 0.27). Conclusions Albeit the sample size was small, the findings demonstrated a promising way to measure the on-field perceptual-cognitive abilities of football players according to their specific positions, since different playing roles revealed to present distinctive visual and attentional patterns.

What is the visual behaviour and attentional effort of football players in different positions during a real 11v11 game? A pilot study

Background: Visual perception has been defined as the first step to a football player’s decision-making process and it plays an important role in performance in sport. The skill of focussing to prioritize relevant cues has been also considered crucial in sport. This pilot study aims to explore the visual behaviour and attentional effort of three football players (mean age 19 ± 0 years old) in specific-role positions; Right-winger (RW), Centre-Midfielder (CM) and Left-Back (LB), in the five seconds before receiving the ball from their teammate. Methods: Twenty-two male football players performed an 11v11 game, where 24 game sequences (trials) from which 166 fixations were recorded and analysed via the Tobii Pro eye-movement registration glasses and software. The gaze behaviour dependent variables were the mean of fixation duration (FD), time to first fixation (TTF), both measured in milliseconds (ms), and the number of fixations (NF) on eight areas of interest (AOIs). AOIs include teammate with and without the ball, opponent without the ball, space around teammate with and without the ball, space around opponent without the ball, ball and undefined. The mean pupil diameter (PD) correlates to the attentional effort and was measured in millimetres (mm). Results: Descriptive statistics showed nonregular search rate data between the participants in FD, TTF, NF on the AOIs. Mean FD on the ball: (CM, 270 ms), (RW, 570 ms), (CM, 380 ms). They also presented differences in the mean PD during play; (CM: 2.90 mm ± 0.26), (RW: 2.74 mm ± 0.30), (LB 2.77mm ± 0.27). Conclusions: Albeit the sample size was small, the findings demonstrated a promising way to measure the on-field perceptual-cognitive abilities of football players according to their specific positions, since different playing roles revealed to present distinctive visual and attentional patterns.

What is the visual behaviour and attentional effort of football players in different positions during a real 11v11 game? A pilot study

Background: Visual perception has been defined as the first step to a football player’s decision-making process and it plays an important role in performance in sport. The skill of focussing to prioritize relevant cues has been also considered crucial in sport. This pilot study aims to explore the visual behaviour and attentional effort of three football players (mean age 19 ± 0 years old) in specific-role positions; Right-winger (RW), Centre-Midfielder (CM) and Left-Back (LB), in the five seconds before receiving the ball from their teammate. Methods: Twenty-two male football players performed an 11v11 game, where 24 game sequences (trials) from which 166 fixations were recorded and analysed via the Tobii Pro eye-movement registration glasses and software. The gaze behaviour dependent variables were the mean of fixation duration (FD), time to first fixation (TTF), both measured in milliseconds (ms), and the number of fixations (NF) on eight areas of interest (AOIs). AOIs include teammate with and without the ball, opponent without the ball, space around teammate with and without the ball, space around opponent without the ball, ball and undefined. The mean pupil diameter (PD) correlates to the attentional effort and was measured in millimetres (mm). Results: Descriptive statistics showed nonregular search rate data between the participants in FD, TTF, NF on the AOIs. Mean FD on the ball: (CM, 270 ms), (RW, 570 ms), (CM, 380 ms). They also presented differences in the mean PD during play; (CM: 2.90 mm ± 0.26), (RW: 2.74 mm ± 0.30), (LB 2.77mm ± 0.27). Conclusions: Albeit the sample size was small, the findings demonstrated a promising way to measure the on-field perceptual-cognitive abilities of football players according to their specific positions, since different playing roles revealed to present distinctive visual and attentional patterns.

The Influence of Age on Eye Movements during Reading in Early Elementary School Children.

Eye movement disorders have been observed in many eye diseases, such as amblyopia and developmental dyslexia. The detection of pathological eye movement behaviour is difficult and requires more data for comparison. Therefore, the main purpose of this study was to evaluate the influence of age, school level, gender, and mother tongue on eye movements while reading. One hundred and twenty-seven normally sighted children aged 7 - 12 were recruited from grades 2 - 5. The children were asked to read aloud two texts of The New International Reading Speed Text (IReST) of similar difficulty. Eye movements while reading were recorded by eyetracking technology (SMI RED 250, SensoMotoric Instruments, Teltow, Germany). The eye movement parameters were obtained from 118 children, and reading speed (words/minute), number of saccades, number of fixations, reading errors, and influence of school grade were analyzed. We showed a significant influence of age in all eye movement parameters. The main finding of this study is that younger children performed more saccades, a higher number of fixations per word, and more reading errors while taking more time to read the text than older children in higher grades. In early grades, non-native German speakers read more slowly and performed more saccades and fixations, but no more differences were seen by grade 5. Overall, there was no significant influence of gender or school system on reading parameters. This study highlights the need for an age-appropriate normative database for eye movements during reading.

An Attentional Bias Modification Task, through Virtual Reality and Eye-Tracking Technologies, to Enhance the Treatment of Anorexia Nervosa.

Mirror exposure therapies (METs) have been shown to be effective in reducing body image disturbances through the habituation process. Virtual reality (VR) combined with eye-tracking techniques can provide innovative solutions to some of METs' limitations reported with patients with anorexia nervosa (AN), especially the negative influence of body-related attentional bias (AB). This pilot study aimed to assess the preliminary efficacy of a new VR-based AB modification task (ABMT) among healthy women and the procedure's user experience. AB levels towards weight- and non-weight-related body parts, using complete fixation time (CFT) and number of fixations (NF), were assessed throughout the ABMT procedure (300 trials). The user experience was evaluated at the end of the procedure. The results showed that VR-based ABMT was effective in reducing AB significantly after 150 trials for both CFT- and NF-based measures, although 225 trials were necessary to get the same result for women with an NF initially more oriented towards weight-related body parts. Overall, the software received a "C-rating" on a scale from "A" (most usable) to "F" (least usable). These results provide evidence of the opportunity to use a VR-based ABMT procedure to reduce AB and improve existing treatments for AN.

Employing Eye Tracking to Study Visual Attention to Live Streaming: A Case Study of Facebook Live

In recent years, the COVID-19 pandemic has led to the development of a new business model, “Live Streaming + Ecommerce”, which is a new method for commercial sales that shares the goal of sustainable economic growth (SDG 8). As information technology finds its way into the digital lives of internet users, the real-time and interactive nature of live streaming has overturned the traditional entertainment experience of audio and video content, moving towards a more nuanced division of labor with multiple applications. This study used a portable eye tracker to collect eye movement information from participants watching Facebook Live, with 31 participants who had experience using the live streaming platform. The four eye movement indicators, namely, latency of first fixation (LFF), duration of first fixation (DFF), total fixation durations (TFD), and the number of fixations (NOF), were used to analyze the distribution of the visual attention in each region of interest (ROI) and explore the study questions based on the ROIs. The findings of this study were as follows: (1) the fixation order of the ROIs in the live ecommerce platform differed between participants of different sexes; (2) the DFF of the ROIs in the live ecommerce platform differed among participants of different sexes; and (3) regarding the ROIs of participants on the live ecommerce platform, participants of different sexes showed the same attention to the live products according to the TFD and NOF eye movement indicators. This study explored the visual search behaviors of existing consumers watching live ecommerce and provides the results as a reference for operators and researchers of live streaming platforms.

The Influence of Articulatory Suppression on Reading Among Chinese Children With Developmental Dyslexia: An Eye-Movement Study.

Objective: The study aimed to examine how the phonological loop influences reading ability and processing in Chinese children with developmental dyslexia (DD).Methods: This study included 30 children with DD and 37 children without DD. Two types of articles (i.e., scenery prose and narrative story) and two conditions (under the conditions of articulatory-suppression and silent reading) were applied. An eye-link II High-Speed Eye Tracker was used to track a series of eye-movement parameters. The data were analyzed by the linear Mixed-Effects model.Results: Compared with children without DD, Children with DD had lower reading achievement (RA), frequency of saccades (FS) and frequency of fixations (FF), longer reading time (RT) and average fixation duration (AFD), slower reading speed (RS), shorter average saccade amplitude (ASA) and fixation distance (FD), more number of fixations (NF), and number of saccades (NS). There were significant interactions between participant group and articulatory suppression on RT and FD. We also observed interaction effects between article types and articulatory suppression on RA, AFD, ASA, and FS.Conclusion: Children DD exhibit abnormal phonological loop and eye movements while reading. The role of articulatory suppression on reading varies with the presentation of DD and the article type.

Scientific Approach to Fashion Websites Using Eye Trackers

This study analyze consumers’ unconscious visual attention to color and images of internet shopping malls by using eye-tracking method. Twenty-nine participants, including 15 females and 14 males, participated. The average ages of the male and female participants were 27.3 years and 27.7 years, respectively. Ten images of five layouts (multi-composition images, single-model images, gender-composed images, videos, and moving banner images) of internet shopping malls were shown on an eye-tracker computer screen. Quantitative analyses of the eye-tracking responses were conducted. SPSS was used to analyze the descriptive characteristics and to conduct an independent-sample t-test, along with an ANOVA. The data analysis showed that the image area generally had the shortest time to first fixation (TFF), the longest duration of fixation (DOF), the highest number of fixations (NOF), and the highest numbers of revisits(NOR).Notably, visual attention towards female models was high among various images. The results can be used to improve credibility and design online shopping layout with a scientific evidence that helps consumers through their purchase decisions.

The Eye-Tracking Study of the Impact of the Gingival Margin Height of Maxillary Lateral Incisors.

The objective of this study was to verify differences in eye-tracking metrics and subjective smile esthetic ratings between general practitioners, orthodontists, and laypersons in cases of maxillary lateral incisor gingival margin deviations. Unilateral apical and incisal gingival margin deviations of 1, 2, and 3 mm were digitally produced in pictures of a man and a woman smiling. Specific areas of interest (AOIs) were created in each picture. Eye-tracking metric data included the time to first fixation (TFF) and number of fixations (NF). A specific sensor and software were used to acquire information on the eye movements. Data on the smile esthetic ratings were obtained using a visual analog scale (VAS). Analysis of variance and Pearson correlation were applied. The TFF on the AOIs in the mouth was shorter for general practitioners and orthodontists, signifying that general practitioners and orthodontists rapidly perceived the features in these areas, while for laypersons, the TFF was shorter for the AOIs of the eyes (P < .05). The NF was greater on the AOIs in the mouth for general practitioners and orthodontists, whereas to the laypersons, the NF tended to be greater on the AOIs in the eyes. Mean VAS scores differed between observer groups (P < .05). For the male picture, the 1-mm and 2-mm apical gingival margin deviations received the highest scores from the laypersons, while for both female and male pictures, the 1-mm apical deviation received the highest scores from the general practitioners and orthodontists. Higher VAS scores resulted in longer times that general practitioners and orthodontists spent looking at the gingival margin changes. General practitioners and orthodontists differ from laypersons in their perceptions of smile esthetics. Eye-tracking metrics revealed that the AOIs in the mouth aroused greater interest from the general practitioners and orthodontists, and this interest became greater as the gingival margin deviations increased to 3 mm. Laypersons fixated more on the AOIs of the eyes. The VAS scores indicated that general practitioners and orthodontists were more critical than laypersons, accepting smaller deviations in the gingival margins of the maxillary lateral incisors.

Psychological Assessment Reports in Selection Decisions: The Role of Spatial Contiguity Principle

Two ways of building psychological assessment reports were explored in two separate cvasi-experimental studies.In the first study, depending on their assigned experimental group, participants received either an integrated or a spatially distant type of report. They were subsequently invited to choose, based on the reports and a corresponding job description, the better candidate for a fictitious job, out of two options. The obtained results suggest that there is no significant difference between the two groups, c2(1) = 0.10, p = .921, fc = 0.009, p = 1.000. Thus, the way in which the reports were structured did not influence in any way the participants’ decision. For the second experiment, which had a similar approach, an eye-tracker was used. Participants were asked to solve the same task, while their eye movements were recorded. The only significant between-group difference was in regards to the integrated transitions the participants made between the graphic and the text, t(29) = 4.45, p = .000, d = 1.59. No significant difference was observed regardingthe number offixations or the duration of fixationsbetween the two groups. Based on these results, we argue that the two contrasted ways of building an assessment report do not influence the accuracy of decisions made.

Eye movement measures for predicting eye gaze accuracy and symptoms in 2D and 3D displays

The current study applied Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to analyze the interrelationship among index of difficulty (ID), environment, saccade duration (SD), revisited fixation duration (RFD), number of fixation (NF), pupil size (PS), eye gaze accuracy (AC), and symptoms simultaneously. SD, RFD, NF, PS, and AC were measured by utilizing the Tobii eye tracker system. Twelve participants were recruited to perform multi-directional tapping task using within-subject design with two different environments (2D screen display and 3D stereoscopic display) and six different levels of ID. SEM showed that ID had significant direct effects on SD and RFD while environment was found had significant direct effects on SD, RFD, PS, AC, and symptoms. Among selected eye movement measures, NF was found to be the best predictor of AC and PS was found to be the best predictor of symptoms. In addition, RFD was also found to be a good predictor of symptoms. Our results found that higher AC was achieved by projecting the image in the 2D screen display with higher ID and it resulted in higher SD and higher NF. Regarding the symptoms, our results found that lower symptoms were achieved by projecting the image in the 2D screen display with lower ID and it resulted in lower PS, and lower RFD.Practitioner Summary: The SEM could provide valuable theoretical foundations to identify the interrelationship among eye movement measures, AC, and symptoms particularly for VR researchers and interface developers.

Eye Movement Parameters for Performance Evaluation in Projection-based Stereoscopic Display.

The current study applied Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to analyze the rela-tionship among index of difficulty (ID) and parallax on eye gaze movement time (EMT), fixation duration (FD), time to first fixation (TFF), number of fixation (NF), and eye gaze accuracy (AC) simultaneously. EMT, FD, TFF, NF, and AC were measured in the projec-tion-based stereoscopic display by utilizing Tobii eye tracker system. Ten participants were recruited to perform multi-directional tapping task using within-subject design with three different levels of parallax and six different levels of ID. SEM proved that ID had significant direct effects on EMT, NF, and FD also a significant indirect effect on NF. However, ID was found not a strong predictor for AC. SEM also proved that parallax had significant direct effects on EMT, NF, FD, TFF, and AC. Apart from the direct effect, parallax also had significant indirect effects on NF and AC. Regarding the interrelation-ship among dependent variables, there were significant indirect effects of FD and TFF on AC. Our results concluded that higher AC was achieved by lowering parallax (at the screen), longer EMT, higher NF, longer FD, and longer TFF.Practitioner Summary: The SEM could provide valuable theoretical foundations of the interrelationship among eye movement parameters for VR researchers and human-virtual-reality interface developers especially for predicting eye gaze accuracy.

Comparative analysis of advertising attention to Facebook social network: Evidence from eye-movement data

With the rapid development of social networking sites, Internet advertising has quickly become an important marketing tool. Previous studies either utilized the concept of click-through-rate (CTR) to estimate the number of people who responded to the presence of the advertisements, or employed a questionnaire to measure the advertisements' effectiveness. However, these results couldn't accurately reveal potential customers due to the lack of a common understanding on Internet advertising. This study used eye tracking technology to record the participants' eye gaze behaviors and analyze the differences in the distribution of visual attentions while browsing the researcher's Facebook page. The participants consisted of 65 students whose eye movements were tracked and recorded by the eye tracking system. These participants came from a northern university of science and technology in Taiwan, of which 35 were assigned to Facebook friend group and the other 30 were assigned to non-Facebook friend group according to their interpersonal relationships with the researcher. Eye tracking measurements, including total fixation duration (TFD) and number of fixations (NOF) on the defined regions of interest (ROIs) of the Facebook page were compared to indicate their visual attentions. The experimental results showed that 1) there was a significant difference on the right-hand side (RHS) ads between the two groups based on TFD and NOF; 2) there was a significant difference on the desktop news feed (DNF) ads between the two groups based on TFD and NOF; 3) there was the same viewing sequences between the two groups based on stimulus with RHS ads; and 4) there was a difference of viewing sequences between the two groups based on stimulus with DNF ads.

Analysis of thermochromic label elements and colour transitions using sensory acceptability and eye tracking techniques

This study utilized eye tracking and sensory techniques to evaluate the acceptability of different thermochromic label elements that exhibited colour transitions. Participants (N = 40) evaluated a baby-formula label (baseline) with two trial versions of the same label using colour transitions [Tr1 = colour change in brand name and primary-figure (koala); Tr2 = colour change in secondary-figure (snowflake)]. Labels appeared on a computer-screen (virtual) for 10 s and participants assessed liking of label elements [areas of interest (AOI)] using a 9-point hedonic-scale. Participants also evaluated printed labels (physical). Complete fixation times (CFT) and number of fixations (NOF) from AOIs (brand name “Baby Grow”, koala, product-description, snowflake, weight) were assessed. Results showed that figures had higher liking scores compared to brand name (6.47–6.88 vs. 5.76). For eye tracking measurements, the koala had the highest CFT (1622–1689 ms) and NOF (3.4–3.5) for all transitions. Liking of brand (Odd-ratio = 1.7–2.0; Tr1/Tr2) affected preference. The preference of virtual and physical labels did not differ. When colour transition was applied, fixation duration was affected, with gaze being drawn to transition elements. Eye tracking was useful for measuring reactions towards labels with changing colours. A combination of sensory data and eye tracking helped to understand preferences.