Number Of Deer Research Articles

АНАЛИЗ ЕСТЕСТВЕННОГО ЛЕСОВОЗОБНОВЛЕНИЯ В НАСАЖДЕНИЯХ ФИСТАШКИ ТУПОЛИСТНОЙ (PISTACIA MUTICA) В КАРАДАГСКОМ ПРИРОДНОМ ЗАПОВЕДНИКЕ

This article discusses the state and the resumption of tree species in plantations of terebinth (Pistacia mutica) on land of the Karadag reserve. Pistacia mutica is a Mediterranean relict species of the Tertiary period, included in the Red Books of Russia, Crimea and Ukraine. Terebinth (Pistacia mutica) creates rare relict plant communities (formation P. mutica) listed in the Green Book of Ukraine. A comparative analysis of small, medium and large undergrowth in the sample areas laid in 2005–2006 and in 2017 for undergrowth damage monitoring. Counting of the number and extent of damage to young growth stands of sessile in 2005–2006 and in 2017 – have shown that the undergrowth density was 2.0 thousand units/ha and 3.5 thousand units/ha correspondently. The degree of damaged undergrowth in 2005–2006 and in 2017 was 5.0 % and 88.6 %, respectively. The number of undergrowth in plantations in 2005–2006 is 1.7 times lower than the number of undergrowth in 2017. At the same time, the density of large undergrowth in plantations in 2005–2006 is 3 times higher than the density of large undergrowth in stands in 2017. The studies noted that there is replacement of the main forest-forming specie of terebinth (Pistacia mutica) bedrock prevailing in the plantations, in the downy oak (Quercus pubescens) and oleaster pear (Pyrus eleagnifolia). In undergrowth Pistacia mutica takes 29 %, and in large undergrowth it takes about 12 %. Most of damaged species is downy oak in all categories of undergrowth and oleaster pear in young growth stands. The undergrowth of European ash (Fraxinus excelsior) is rare. As the number of European roe deer (Capreolus capreolus Linnaeus, 1758) grows, the pressure on the floristic complexes of the reserve increases too, due to excessive population density of this species (the her density in 2016 is 10 time higher than optimal density – 437 species on 1000 ha ). A great destruction of the undergrowth observed. Most of damaged wildlife species is downy oak in all categories of undergrowth, and oleaster pear in small undergrowth. Meanwhile, the share of affected undergrowth of terebinth increased from 2,9 to 85.0 %, the share of downy oak – from 4.8 to 93.4 %, and the share oleaster pear – from 3,3 to 96,4 %. Renewal of tree species in plantations of Pistacia mutica in the Karadag reserve should be considered unsatisfactory. P. mutica populations in Kardag reserve require ongoing monitoring and conservation.

Assessing the ecological feasibility of reintroducing the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) to southern Scotland, England and Wales

Reintroductions of top predators are crucial for restoring ecosystems and are a central tenet of rewilding efforts. In recent years, top predators such as the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) have increased in numbers and expanded into their former range across Europe. A proposal for conducting a trial reintroduction of the Eurasian lynx in England has recently been rejected by the UK government. Lynx could provide ecological benefits; primarily a natural control on deer numbers. Whilst in-depth feasibility studies have been undertaken for Scotland, no detailed assessment of the ecological feasibility of a lynx reintroduction has been produced for the rest of Britain. This study seeks to provide an initial assessment of the ecological feasibility of a reintroduction in southern Scotland, England and Wales by; (1) quantifying the suitable habitat using GIS software, (2) assessing habitat connectivity using GIS-based least cost path (LCP) techniques, (3) quantifying the potential number of lynx that could be supported, using estimated deer densities, and (4) assessing population viability using PVA software. This study identified 11,369 km2 of suitable habitat, split across eight habitat networks. This habitat could potentially support an estimated 256 lynx. The largest habitat network (3918 km2) is located in the Southern Uplands of Scotland and Kielder Forest of England, however the second largest habitat network in the Southeast of England could host the largest lynx population (107). Three subpopulations (Southern Uplands and Kielder Forest, Southeast England and Thetford Forest) have extinction probabilities under 10% in at least one of the three PVA scenarios modelled.

Effects of culling intensity on diel and seasonal activity patterns of sika deer (Cervus nippon)

Adaptive hunting management is commonly used for controlling the populations of overabundant large herbivores; however, induced behavioural changes can make the effective control of target populations difficult. However, few studies have compared the impact of different levels of hunting intensities on the activity patterns of ungulates before, during, and after a culling program. We investigated how different culling intensities affect the activity patterns of sika deer on Nakanoshima Island in Lake Toya, Hokkaido, Japan using camera-trap surveys comparing the period of treatment before, during, and after a culling program. We used the number of deer photographed per hour per camera as an index of activity. Sika deer showed consistent crepuscular activity patterns (i.e., dawn and dusk) during spring–summer and trimodal activity patterns (i.e., dawn, dusk, and midnight) in autumn throughout the study period. In response to increased culling intensity, the activity peaks shifted slightly towards the night. The shift towards nocturnal activity persisted during post-culling period. Understanding the changes in activity patterns in response to culling intensity could be used to facilitate population control and assist in establishing a night shooting program. Thus, wildlife managers should consider night shooting once hunting during day time has shifted the normal diurnal activity of deer to nocturnal activity.

Optimization of the location of production centers (slaughter points) of reindeer farms using iterative methods

The article deals with options for the most effective placement of slaughter points, the location of which would reduce the distance of deer drive to the places of slaughter from reindeer herding farms. When using different criteria, the location of the deer slaughtering production center shifts towards those organizations that have the largest number of deer and the economic efficiency of optimal placement of the slaughter points depends on the number of conditions used in the criterion.

Predicted Northward Expansion of the Geographic Range of the Tick Vector Amblyomma americanum in North America under Future Climate Conditions.

Background:The geographic range of the tick Amblyomma americanum, a vector of diseases of public health significance such as ehrlichiosis, has expanded from the southeast of the United States northward during the 20th century. Recently, populations of this tick have been reported to be present close to the Canadian border in Michigan and New York states, but established populations are not known in Canada. Previous research suggests that changing temperature patterns with climate change may influence tick life cycles and permit northward range expansion of ticks in the northern hemisphere.Objectives:We aimed to estimate minimal temperature conditions for survival of A. americanum populations at the northern edge of the tick’s range and to investigate the possibility of range expansion of A. americanum into northern U.S. states and southern Canada in the coming decades.Methods:A simulation model of the tick A. americanum was used, via simulations using climate data from meteorological stations in the United States and Canada, to estimate minimal temperature conditions for survival of A. americanum populations at the northern edge of the tick’s range.Results:The predicted geographic scope of temperature suitability [ annual cumulative degree days (DD) ] included most of the central and eastern U.S. states east of longitude 110°W, which is consistent with current surveillance data for the presence of the tick in this region, as well as parts of southern Quebec and Ontario in Canada. Regional climate model output raises the possibility of northward range expansion into all provinces of Canada from Alberta to Newfoundland and Labrador during the coming decades, with the greatest northward range expansion (up to by the year 2100) occurring under the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) 8.5. Predicted northward range expansion was reduced by approximately half under the reduced GHG emissions of RCP4.5.Discussion:Our results raise the possibility of range expansion of A. americanum into northern U.S. states and southern Canada in the coming decades, and conclude that surveillance for this tick, and the diseases it transmits, would be prudent. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP5668

Spatial distribution and landscape associations of large‐antlered deer

ABSTRACTFor more than a century, the Boone and Crockett Club has kept records of harvest locations for 38 categories of North American big game, which includes measurement details and sizes of enduring characteristics (e.g., antlers, skulls, horns). All white‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) entered in the Club records (i.e., record deer) have large antlers because the measurements must meet or exceed a minimum size to qualify for entry. We used the records from the Club to test the hypothesis that the spatial distribution in the harvest of record deer was related to the number of antlered deer harvested, variations in land productivity, soil mineral content, and attributes of land cover for 9 states in the midwestern United States. We used a Bayesian theoretical framework to develop a spatial model that examined the influence of explanatory variables on the number of record deer harvested in each county. In our study area, 3,658 record deer were harvested in 692 of the 856 counties (80.8%). More record deer were harvested in counties that had more high‐contrast edges, less contiguous land cover, and greater variation in soil productivity. These results provide information for managers and hunters to better understand the spatial distribution of record deer and factors that are correlated with their distribution. © 2019 The Wildlife Society.

Effectiveness of Seasonal Deer Advisories on Changeable Message Signs as a Deer Crash Mitigation Tool

The Virginia Department of Transportation began posting deer advisory messages on changeable message signs (CMSs) along a 16.7-mi segment of Interstate 64 in October 2015. The posting of these messages during the peak of deer activity, from October to November from 5 p.m. to 9 a.m., was intended to raise driver awareness and reduce the high number of deer–vehicle collisions (DVCs) in the area. The effectiveness of deer advisory messages with regard to DVC reduction is not well known. Effectiveness in this study was determined by evaluating deer carcass removal data from three October and November deer advisory posting periods. Vehicle speed evaluations were also conducted to determine whether drivers reduced speed in response to the advisories. Carcass removals were lower when the deer advisories were posted than when they were not posted, and this difference was statistically significant. During the deer advisory postings, there were statistically significant speed reductions of up to 2.8 mph at four of the five vehicle sensor stations. Speed reductions were greater when deer advisories were posted during periods of lower traffic volumes. Seasonal deer advisory messages on an interstate appear to be an effective form of DVC mitigation. Posting seasonal deer advisories every other day on the five existing CMSs in this study’s project area is expected to save approximately $700,000 to $1.4 million over the service life of the CMSs.

Using spotlight observations to predict resource selection and abundance for white‐tailed deer

ABSTRACTSpotlight surveys for white‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) can yield large presence‐only datasets applicable to a variety of resource selection modeling procedures. By understanding how populations distribute according to a given resource for a reference area, density and abundance can be predicted across new areas assuming the relationship between habitat quality (measured by an index of selection) and species distribution are equivalent. Habitat‐based density estimators have been applied to wildlife species and are useful for addressing conservation and management concerns. Although achieving reliable population estimates is a primary goal for spotlighting studies, presence‐only models have yet to be applied to spotlight data for estimating habitat selection and abundance for deer. From 2012 to 2017, we conducted spring spotlight surveys in each of 99 counties in Iowa, USA, and collected spatial locations for 20,149 groups of deer (n = 71,323 individuals). We used a resource selection function (RSF) based on deer locations to predict the relative probability of use for deer at the population level and to estimate statewide abundance. The number of deer observed statewide increased significantly with increasing RSF value for all years and the mean RSF value along survey transects explained 59% of the variability in county‐level deer counts, indicating that a functional response between habitat quality and deer distribution existed at landscape scales. We applied our RSF to a habitat‐based density estimator (extrapolation) and zero‐inflated Poisson (ZIP) and negative binomial (ZINB) count models to predict statewide abundance from spotlight counts. Population estimates for 2012 were variable, indicating that atypical weather conditions may affect spotlight counts and population estimates in some years. For 2013–2017, we predicted a mean population of 439,129 (95% CI ∼ ± 55,926), 440,360 (∼ ± 43,676), and 465,959 (∼ ± 51,242) deer across years for extrapolation, ZIP, and ZINB models, respectively. Estimates from all models were not significantly different than estimates from an existing deer population accounting model in Iowa for 2013 and 2016, and differed by <76,000 deer for all models from 2013–2017. Extrapolation and ZIP models performed similarly and differed by <2,897 deer across all years, whereas ZINB models showed inconsistencies in model convergence and precision of estimates. Our results indicate that presence‐only models are capable of producing reliable and precise estimates of resource selection and abundance for deer at broad landscape scales in Iowa and provide a tool for estimating deer abundance in a spatially explicit manner. © 2019 The Wildlife Society.

Long‐term dynamics of Alpine ungulates suggest interspecific competition

AbstractStudies identifying interspecific competition require the investigation of negative long‐term effects between sympatric species showing overlap in resource use. A potential for competition exists between red deer Cervus elaphus and chamois Rupicapra spp., as revealed by the high dietary overlap observed throughout the range where the species co‐occur. Furthermore, some studies have recently reported negative demographic consequences on chamois populations living in sympatry with red deer. Using time series of counts spanning 35 years between 1984 and 2018 in the Stelvio National Park (Central Italian Alps), we tested for density dependence using state‐space models and explored the evidence of competitive interaction through Ricker‐like models on the growth rate of both species. We contrasted alternative hypotheses for the processes explaining the trends of (decreasing) chamois and (increasing) red deer populations. We expected chamois dynamics to be negatively affected by increasing deer abundance, while deer dynamics should be primarily affected by climate forcing and density dependence. We found evidence that resources were limiting for both species. In particular, growth rates were negatively affected by the synergistic effect of winter weather conditions and density dependence. The most important variable limiting the chamois population, however, was the increase in red deer numbers. The dynamics of this species was unaffected by chamois numbers. While causality cannot be inferred from the data, these results are consistent with the hypothesis of a negative effect of red deer on chamois dynamics, thus supporting the occurrence of interference or exploitation competition between sympatric mountain‐dwelling ungulates. Understanding the processes underlying temporal dynamics is pivotal for informed management of wildlife. Consequences of interspecific competition should be carefully evaluated where the populations of the weaker competitor are of conservation concern, especially in the light of the negative effects of anthropogenic environmental change on animal populations.

Validation of Body Condition Indicators for Monitoring Changes in Populations of Sika Deer (Cervus nippon) at a Landscape Scale

The estimated number of sika deer within the Tanzawa Mountains has decreased since the Kanagawa Prefecture sika deer management plan commenced. Meanwhile, unit-specific culling has resulted in various trends in deer density across small monitoring units. Deer abundance is usually surveyed within small monitoring units; therefore, the evaluation of deer abundance changes across the entire management area comprising individual units is difficult. We examined the relationship between deer body condition indicators and densities estimated at both individual unit and entire management scales in the Tanzawa Mountains during 2004–2015. Winter fawn body mass in the study area increased at least until 2011, irrespective of the increase/decrease in deer density in each unit. Observed variations in body mass were related to the estimated number of deer within the entire management area. Winter fawn hind foot length was not related to any density estimates. Inconsistencies between deer density changes in each unit and body mass might derive from the deer movement between units and mitigation of density-dependent food limitations caused by a reduction in the number of deer within the entire management area. We suggest that winter fawn body mass can provide additional evidence of deer abundance changes within management areas.

Comparative Characteristics of the Geophagic Activity of Red Deer (Cervus elaphus L., 1758, Cervidae, Artiodactyla) in Yakutia in the Native and Invasive Parts of Its Range

Red deer (Cervus elaphus L., 1758) geophagia has been recorded using camera traps on five natural salt licks in Yakutia: the native part (two salt licks) and the expansion zone of its range (three salt licks). A chemical analysis has revealed that the content of most chemical elements is richer in animal solonetzic soils in the native part of the range than in soils of the invasive part. In total, 295 camera trap days were conducted. A total of 238 single and group visits of salt licks were recorded over this period. The stay of 300 red deer on salt licks, including repeat visits of the same individuals, was recorded. The identification of individuals by age and sex revealed only 55 individuals: 28 males and 27 females. The maximum number of deer in simultaneous geophagia was five individuals. The average duration of red deer geophagia (M ± m) was 13.8 ± 1.4 min (limit 1–98; n = 232). The duration of geophagia was 1.5 times longer in the invasive part of their range than in the native part. The intense visiting of salt licks by deer was registered in the darkest time of day, i.e., from 00:00 to 04:00, while the lowest number of visits was observed at sunset, i.e., from 20:00 to 00:00. The visitation of salt licks by months is higher in May–June and decreases from July. The sex ratio of individuals that visited the salt licks was 50.9% males and 49.1% females.

Population Estimates and Habitat Selection of White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus ustus) in the Antisana Water Conservation Area, Ecuador

The Antisana Water Conservation Area (ACHA) greatly contributes to the water supply of the Metropolitan District of Quito (DMQ). Therefore, integrated management of the area needs to take into account the ecological interactions that sustain the interception and slow release of water by the vegetation and soil. An apparent increase in the population of white-tailed deer has led to the concern that this herbivore may alter the vegetation and thus the water cycle. In this study, we obtain the first population estimates for white-tailed deer in ACHA and the second estimate for the Ecuadorean Andes. Vantage point counts (VPC) set the minimum population for the reserve at 760 individuals, whereas the fecal standing crop (FSC) indirect method determined an estimate of 953 ± 368 (90% confidence interval) for a density of 11.27 individuals/km2. The density of deer is low compared to other sites in the Colombian and Venezuelan Andes. From a management perspective, the optimal number of deer for the reserve will depend on the impact the deer have on the ideal composition of plants for the long-term production of water.

Deer browsing alters sound propagation in temperate deciduous forests.

The efficacy of animal signals is strongly influenced by the structure of the habitat in which they are propagating. In recent years, the habitat structure of temperate forests has been increasingly subject to modifications from foraging by white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Increasing deer numbers and the accompanying browsing have been shown to alter vegetation structure and thus the foraging, roosting, and breeding habitats of many species. However, despite a large body of literature on the effects of vegetation structure on sound propagation, we do not yet know what impact deer browsing may have on acoustic communication. Here we used playback experiments to determine whether sound fidelity and amplitude of white noise, pure tones, and trills differed between deer-browsed and deer-excluded plots. We found that sound fidelity, but not amplitude, differed between habitats, with deer-browsed habitats having greater sound fidelity than deer-excluded habitats. Difference in sound propagation characteristics between the two habitats could alter the efficacy of acoustic communication through plasticity, cultural evolution or local adaptation, in turn influencing vocally-mediated behaviors (e.g. agonistic, parent-offspring, mate selection). Reduced signal degradation suggests vocalizations may retain more information, improving the transfer of information to both intended and unintended receivers. Overall, our results suggest that deer browsing impacts sound propagation in temperate deciduous forest, although much work remains to be done on the potential impacts on communication.

Response of moorland vegetation to 20 years of conservation management in two Cairngorm glens

The response of vegetation to a large reduction in red deer numbers was assessed over a 20 year period in two contrasting glens in the Eastern Cairngorms. Monitoring was done in spring when the annual maximum herbivore impact accumulates on the heather. We estimated deer presence from pellet-group counts, and for heather we measured cover, height and shoot browsing. Deer numbers declined earlier in Glen Derry, and correspondingly heather height increased sooner. Trends in Glen Lui were related to plot wetness and distance from places where the deer were fed in winter; dry plots received much heavier usage from deer and rabbits initially, keeping the heather short and cover stable, whereas on wet plots usage was much lower and heather increased both in cover and height. Subsequently, as deer densities fell, the Lui heather thrived, and by 2013 heather height on dry plots had surpassed height on wet plots. Colonisation by pine saplings was very patchy, being virtually confined to plots within 50 m of mature trees and having heather swards less than 25 cm tall. Despite deer numbers falling, saplings still suffered browsing by black grouse, lagomorphs and voles. Annual increments were greatest on dry plots in Glen Lui. However, we estimate that another eight years of negligible deer numbers are needed for the present sapling crop to become safe from deer damage. A limited regime of burning near mature pines may assist regeneration.

Temporal and spatial variation in the risk of grazing damage to sown grasslands by sika deer (Cervus nippon) in a mountainous area, central Japan

Grazing damage to pasture plants by cervids results in economic losses and substantially increases production costs for dairy farms. Understanding both temporal and spatial variations in the risk of grazing damage to sown grasslands by deer will help in deciding suitable timing for culling and in prioritizing pastures and meadows for the introduction of damage prevention management, such as fencing and culling. Here, we assessed both the season and the sown grassland characteristics that attracted more sika deer (Cervus nippon) on a dairy farm located in a mountainous area of Gunma Prefecture in central Japan. We conducted spotlight counts on the farm during 2012–2015 to record the number of deer in 32 management units utilized as pastures or meadows. Deer utilized the grasslands year-round, but their numbers fluctuated seasonally. Deer utilization was the highest in November and the lowest in February. During the snow-free season (April–November), there were more deer in fertilized management units but fewer in cattle-stocked management units. During the snow season (December–March), more deer were found in management units with steeper terrain. Factors affecting deer utilization differed by season: the quality and availability of pasture plants were the primary drivers of deer utilization in the snow-free season, but only the availability of pasture plants drove utilization in the snow season. Farm managers should consider damage control plans for deer based on the risk of grazing damage, which fluctuates depending on both the season and the characteristics of management units.

Экономика Ямальского Севера в период Гражданской войны (1918—1920)

The article deals with the economic situation of the Yamal North in Civil war conditions. Based on the analysis of available sources and studies, attention is paid to the analysis of the local economy state. The author raises a question of the adverse effects of wartime factors, which led to the violation of the former economic relations of the region. The novelty of the study is seen in the fact that on the basis of new documents (published and archival), the author clarifies statistical data on fish catches and fur production, the number of deer, raw materials, carried out by a cooperation. The author systematizes the available factual material and supplements it with new data. This material shows that as a result of the implementation of economic measures of the Soviet authorities and anti-Bolshevik governments, the economic situation of the region has changed. Special attention is paid to the economic activities of the Soviet authorities in the 1920-ies aimed at creating state fishing industry, factories, cooperatives, introduction of food requisitioning and other duties. The article proves that there was a decline in the development of key sectors of the regional economy, difficulties in food supply of Obdorsk and other settlements of the region, the deterioration of the economic situation of the population.

The Armstrong Ranch: Establishing and Preserving a Legacy

The Armstrong Ranch: Establishing and Preserving a Legacy Sarita A. Hixon (bio) Click for larger view View full resolution The Armstrong family, circa 2003. Courtesy of Sarita A. Hixon. [End Page 140] I had the good fortune to be raised on the Armstrong Ranch, which my family has owned for more than one hundred and sixty years. Located about eighty miles south of Corpus Christi, the ranch is an oasis in the heart of the Wild Horse Desert. We are in the seventh generation of family ownership, and I am thankful for the vision, labor, tenacity, and sacrifice of those who established and preserved this family ranch. I am proud to share the story of my family’s legacy. The story of the Armstrong Ranch began on a spring day in May 1852 when my great-great grandfather, James H. Durst, rode through the Wild Horse Desert from the Rio Grande Valley to Corpus Christi, Texas, for a state fair. At the time, the Wild Horse Desert was raw, unsettled land. The arid, sandy soil and scarcity of water made it unsuitable for farming. Yet the presence of great numbers of healthy wild horses, cattle, and deer clearly proved the land could be grazed. James Durst had recently moved from Nacogdoches to the Rio Grande Valley following the U.S.–Mexico War. He had established a successful mercantile operation and had money to invest.1 He saw potential for large scale cattle ranching in this land, so in December 1852, he bought 21 leagues, more than 92,000 acres, of the La Barreta land grant from descendants of the original grantee, José Francisco Ballí.2 His friends Captain Richard King and Captain Mifflin Kenedy followed suit the next year and purchased lands in the Wild [End Page 141] Horse Desert.3 With these purchases, Durst, King, and Kenedy became the founding fathers of the Armstrong, King, and Kenedy Ranches, respectively. Sadly, Durst never realized his vision for his raw rangeland. He died on April 24, 1858, and left a twenty-four-year-old widow, Mary Josephine Durst (my great-great grandmother), and two young children, Mollie and Jim Durst. Unable to support her children alone in South Texas, Josephine Durst moved to Austin to be near her family. According to James H. Durst’s will, the properties were to be left equally to his widow and children.4 The family retained the Nueces County law firm of Lovinskiold and McCampbell to settle the estate.5 Suspiciously, a few years later, title to the extensive La Baretta property ended up in the hands of the attorneys, and the widow and children never received a dime for the sale of the estate properties.6 The story of the Armstrong Ranch would have ended with this fraud had not my great grandfather, John Barkley Armstrong, gone to Texas (later sources list his middle name as “Barclay”). John B. Armstrong came from a long line of prominent physicians in Tennessee. He left for Texas in 1868 at the age of eighteen.7 We do not know why he left his family in Tennessee.8 By January 1873, however, he was in Austin, where he joined the Travis Rifles, and in 1875 signed on to serve in Captain Leander McNelly’s company of Texas Rangers.9 He rose quickly through the ranks and acquired the nickname “McNelly’s Bulldog.”10 The highlight of my great grandfather’s Texas Ranger career was his arrest of the notorious outlaw John Wesley Hardin in 1877.11 Family lore has it that once Armstrong returned Hardin to Texas for trial and collected his share of the $4,000 reward, he finally believed he was worthy of marrying the young lady in Austin he had admired for several years, Mollie Durst, James Durst’s daughter and heir.12 Mollie and John B. Armstrong were married in Austin in 1878 and their mutual friend, Robert J. Kleberg, served as Armstrong’s best man.13 [End Page 142] It is not clear when Armstrong learned of the Durst properties lost to unscrupulous lawyers. Once aware of the fraud, John B. Armstrong resolved to regain title to those lost lands for...

The Challenges of Protecting an Endangered Species in the Developing World: A Case History of Eld’s Deer Conservation in Myanmar

Eld’s deer is an endangered species confined to dry forests of Southeast Asia. With the largest populations occurring in Myanmar, the Smithsonian Institution engaged the government and local organizations in conservation efforts. Nationwide, there has been a decline in both dry forest and deer distribution since the 1980s, despite the deer having national and international protected status. The deer persist in two national protected areas, Chatthin and Shwesettaw Wildlife Sanctuaries. From 1995 to 2005, the Smithsonian intensively upgraded facilities, staff capacity, and local education at Chatthin Wildlife Sanctuary and documented a marked rise in deer numbers. Following a 2005 pullout by the Smithsonian and a steep decline in international funds, deer populations at this reserve declined rapidly to below 1995 levels. This period coincided with a near complete loss of suitable habitat outside the reserve, repeated changes of reserve leadership, and emphasis on sustainable livelihoods for the surrounding communities rather than enforcement. At Shwesettaw Wildlife Sanctuary, chronically low deer densities and lack of funding were dramatically reversed with the influx of military personnel around a new military base established inside the reserve. The military presence resulted in extensive forest clearing and was protested heavily by the Smithsonian and other international organizations as detrimental to the deer. However, the immediate response in Shwesettaw Wildlife Sanctuary has been an increase in deer numbers. Whether examining the “soft diplomacy” of public engagement and increased staff capacity or the “hard enforcement” by the military, both demonstrated that the species can respond rapidly to management actions; but the sustainability of these population responses without further government agency investment is uncertain.

Impact of red deer (Cervus elaphus) on forage crops in a protected area

During the last decades in Italy red deer (Cervus elaphus) density has locally reached very high values, with consequent serious problems due to the interaction with human activities, especially in protected areas. This study aims at quantifying the impact of red deer on herbaceous crops for forage production in a protected area in Northern Italy, that has been recently colonized by this species. To this aim, 14 exclusion enclosures on maize destined for whole plant silage production and 24 exclusion enclosures (not grazed, NG) on permanent meadows were established. For each of these sample plots (2 × 2 m), an adjacent control plot of identical surface area was established, freely available to red deer (grazed, G). Maize was harvested in September, whereas three grass cuts were harvested on meadows (May, July and August) and biomass production was weighed. Grass samples were collected, both in NG and in G plots, for chemical analysis. Red deer number was monthly estimated by night counts along fixed paths, using spotlights. The analysis of deer distribution allowed the distinction between two areas: High Density (HD: Northern area, with lower human disturbance, abundance of sheltered areas and an estimated deer density of 14–30 heads/km2) and Low Density (LD: Central and Southern areas, with an estimated deer density of 0–1.6 heads/km2). The percentage of maize plots with deer damage was significantly higher in HD than in LD area (83.3 vs 12.5%, respectively; P < 0.05). In HD, red deer impact on maize crop was significant on plant height (NG = 250.75 ± 47.58 vs G = 136.87 ± 87.90 cm; P < 0.05) and biomass production/plant (NG = 0.87 ± 0.42 vs G = 0.37 ± 0.39 kg/4 m2; P < 0.05), whereas no significant effect was observed in LD. The percentage of plots of permanent meadows with deer damage did not differ between HD and LD areas. Significant losses were observed only in the second cut in the HD area for DM production, which was reduced by almost 14%.The chemical composition of the meadow forages showed only slight differences between G and NG plots (CP and NDF content significantly lower in G plots). The results obtained indicate that a high red deer density has an impact on the economic activity of farmers, particularly in term of maize losses (with estimated economic losses higher than € 20,000/farm/year), and suggest that appropriate management strategies, such as fencing of the crops at risk, are highly advisable.

A simple method for calculating minimum estimates of previous population sizes of wildlife from hunting records.

Hunting records have proven useful for examining the historical status of wildlife populations. The number of animals harvested can provide information on past population sizes that would have been required to support harvest yields. Therefore, when statistical data on annual harvests are available, a minimum estimate of past population sizes can be calculated. A very simple method for estimating the sizes of historic wildlife populations using only annual hunting records and the maximum annual population increase rate is presented in this study. This method was applied to estimate past population sizes for Japanese sika deer (Cervus nippon yesoensis) in Hokkaido Island, Japan, using hunting records from 1873 to 1882, and assuming 15% and 35% population increase rates. The annual number of deer harvested during 1873 to 1882 ranged from 15,000 to 129,000. The minimum population size in 1873 was estimated as 349,000–473,000. This method was validated by applying it to the eastern population of Hokkaido Island in 1993 when the population size was approximately 260,000, and population sizes estimated by this method were 0.50–1.17 times the nominal population size. Thus, the population estimates from this method were approximately equal to or less than the expected population sizes, and this method can be used to obtain minimum estimates of wildlife populations. Because shorter durations of hunting records result in population size underestimates, it would be better to use hunting record of 10 years or longer in this method. In addition, the degree of underestimation may change with hunting pressure intensity on the populations, other causes of mortality, and maximum annual increase rates of the species. The method can be applied to any wildlife species for which records of annual harvest and maximum annual population increase rates of the species are available. The estimates obtained can provide benchmarks for the population size required for ecosystem conservation, and can be useful for wildlife management as they indicate the lowest limit to maintain the population.