Northern Mali Research Articles

Confronting Rifles with Words: The High Islamic Council of Mali and Non-State Armed Groups

Abstract Since the 2012 Tuareg rebellion and the takeover of large areas in the north of Mali by Islamic fundamentalist groups, Muslim religious leaders in the country have spearheaded important negotiation initiatives under the auspices of the High Islamic Council of Mali (HCIM). On more than one occasion, these initiatives have led to the liberation of detainees or the possibility of humanitarian convoys reaching communities caught in the midst of the armed conflict. Why were these initiatives successful (or unsuccessful)? How did religious leaders convince non-state armed groups to adopt conduct that complies with basic humanitarian norms? Drawing on desk-based and fieldwork research conducted as part of the Generating Respect Project, this article seeks to answer these questions and to identify the endogenous and contextual factors that contributed to the successes of the HCIM and its negotiators.

The efficacy of attractive targeted sugar baits in reducing malaria vector abundance in low-endemicity settings of northwest Mali

BackgroundAttractive targeted sugar baits (ATSBs) have the potential to significantly reduce infective female Anopheles mosquitoes in arid areas, such as in Northern Mali. Malaria is epidemic in the north due to the limited viability of Anopheles species in the desert climate.The goal of this study was to determine of the effect of ATSB on the number of older female An. gambiae and on the number of sporozoite-positive females in villages in northern Mali.MethodsVillages were located in the north of Mali. In this study, 5677 ATSB stations were deployed, two on each home, in ten villages during late July and early August 2019. Ten villages served as controls. After a pre-treatment monitoring period in July, An. gambiae populations were monitored again from August to December using CDC-UV light traps, pyrethrum spray catches (PSC), and human landing catches (HLC). Mosquitoes were dissected to estimate their age, while ELISA detected sporozoite positivity. The monthly entomological inoculation rates (EIRs) were calculated for HLC indoors and outdoors. Data from villages were compared using t-tests, while bait station weighted density versus amount of collected females was checked with a Pearson’s correlation.ResultsA total of 2703 female An. gambiae were caught from treated villages, 4582 from control villages, a 41.0% difference. Dissection of 1759 females showed that ATSB significantly reduced the number of older females. The proportion of older females in treated villages was 0.93% compared to 9.4% in control villages. ELISA analysis of 7285 females showed that bait stations reduced the number of sporozoite-positive females. The infective females in treated villages was 0.30% compared to 2.73% in the controls. The greater the density of bait stations deployed, the fewer the older, infective females (P < 0.05).EIRs were low in control villages except in months when An. gambiae populations were high. EIRs in ATSB placement villages remained zero. Significant reductions (P < 0.0001) in An. gambiae males were observed.ConclusionsBait stations reduced all measures of vector populations in this study. In a low-transmission setting, ATSB has the potential to greatly reduce malaria.

Multivariate Statistical Analysis of Dominating Groundwater Mineralization and Hydrochemical Evolution in Gao, Northern Mali

Multivariate Statistical Analysis of Dominating Groundwater Mineralization and Hydrochemical Evolution in Gao, Northern Mali

Informality and insecurity in the Sahel: unravelling the hybrid political orders of Northern Mali and Northern Niger

Since the Sahelian crisis broke out in 2012, Northern Mali and Northern Niger have been identified as the two potential epicentres of violence in the region. Nevertheless, while sharing very similar structural conditions and constraints, during the last decade these two subregions have scored very differently in terms of stability and armed conflict along the centre-periphery divide. Aiming to understand the divergent security patterns in Northern Mali and Northern Niger, this work highlights the importance of informal institutions as politically – and spatially contingent networks whose mechanisms for regulating authority and power are key for the appreciation of state capacity and political ordering, and essential for understanding statehood in the Sahel. We stress the importance of hybrid political orders and informality for the definition of political settlements which result in (a) the cooptation of political/economic competitors and the stabilisation of viable governance arrangements; or (b) an open contestation of authority and value-extraction that paves the way for destabilising dynamics. The diverging pattern exhibited by the two cases demonstrates that hybrid networks that straddle political and informal institutions are crucial in determining either the stabilisation or destabilisation of political settlements.

Analysing the effect of a dynamic physical environment network on the travel dynamics of forcibly displaced persons in Mali

Article Analysing the effect of a dynamic physical environment network on the travel dynamics of forcibly displaced persons in Mali Boesjes Freek 1, Jahani Alireza 2, Ooink Bas 3, and Derek Groen 2,* 1 Utrecht University, Heidelberglaan 8, Utrecht, Utrecht 3584 CS, the Netherlands 2 Computer Science Department, Brunel University London, Wilfred Brown Building, Kingston Lane, Uxbridge UB8 3PH, UK 3 Blue Team Intelligence, Jan Aertshof 3, Hoevelaken 3871 WH, the Netherlands * Correspondence: Derek.Groen@brunel.ac.uk Received: 7 September 2023 Accepted: 30 January 2024 Published: 26 March 2024 Abstract: As of 2023, the world has approximately 100 million refugees, many of whom have been displaced by violent conflicts. Accurately predicting where these people may go can help non-government organisations (NGOs) and other support organisations to more effectively help these refugees. In this paper, we extend the existing flee migration forecasting model which models migration using intelligent agents with a dynamic network that represents the physical environment. In doing so, we integrate time-dependent data into four different characteristics from three public data sources. We obtain data from aspects such as the slope, drainage, soil and infrastructure, and use these aspects to systematically modify the movement preferences of forcibly displaced agents in the flee model. We showcase our approach by applying it to the 2012 northern Mali conflict. We find that numerous routes previously deemed traversable are actually inaccessible for prolonged periods according to sensor data, and a range of off-road routes are instead traversable for vehicles. We also perform a validation comparison with the original modelling approach, and find that our revised representation of travel routes leads to a reduction of 4.5% in the averaged relative difference. Our approach can be reused in other flee conflict contexts, of which five are present in the EU-funded ITFLOWS project alone. Our work provides the ability to represent a dynamic physical environment and potentially improves the simulation accuracy in a range of flee conflict situations.

The Spread of Jihadism in the Sahel. Part 2

Following the occupation of northern Mali by jihadist groups in 2012, the national and international military response failed to counter their influence. Having spread to neighbouring countries of Burkina Faso and Niger, jihadism is now on the doorstep of some countries in the Gulf of Guinea, such as Togo and Benin. This article analyses in three parts the main factors that have been exploited (instrumentalised) by these jihadist groups in the Sahel, a strategy that they could replicate in the countries mentioned above.

Anesthesia practice in collective emergency situations: Example of Togo army peacekeeping hospital

Objective: To report on anesthesia activities at the Togo Armed Forces Hospital deployed to Kidal in northern Mali as part of the Minusma. Patients and methods: This is a retrospective descriptive study carried out from 1er March 2015 to 29 February 2020. Results: One hundred and six (106) patients were treated under anaesthesia, i.e. an average of 21.2 per year. The mean age was 28.9 years, with extremes of 4 and 57 years. The patients were predominantly male, with a sex ratio of 25.5. Military personnel accounted for 74% of patients. Traumatic emergencies were the most frequent (56.4%), including 42.3% war injuries. Trauma and visceral surgeries were the most common at 48.1% and 47.2%. 66.1% of patients were classified as ASA1u. General anesthesia with orotracheal intubation (GA + OTI) was used in 56.6%. Ketamine (68.4%) and Propofol (31.6%) were most commonly used. Rocuronium was used in 88.3% of cases, and Fentanyl was the only morphine used. All patients received minimal monitoring of blood pressure, pulse, electrocardiogram, oxygen saturation and capnogram. Twenty (20) % of patients received a transfusion of packed red blood cells; only one patient received a transfusion of lyophilized plasma. Tranexamic acid was used in 9.4% of patients. Multimodal analgesia was provided with Paracetamol, Nefopam, Ketoprofen and Morphine. Forty-two patients were evacuated after stabilization, 59.5% to level 3 (Dakar) and 40.5% to level 2+ (Bamako). Intraoperative complications were dominated by arterial hypotension (35.2%) and shivering (19.6%). We recorded 0.6% intraoperative deaths. Conclusion: The organization of anesthesia care remains a major challenge in areas with limited medical resources and in conflict zones. It is possible thanks to improved medical equipment and ongoing simulation of medical and paramedical staff in emergency and disaster medicine.

A Problem as Colonial Legacy Northern Mali and Azawad

Mali has been experiencing a long period of instability in the security context due to terrorist activities, civil wars, and coups in the region. The turmoil following the Libyan crisis, the military coup in Mali, and the subsequent coups in West Africa have created favorable conditions for the proliferation and attacks of groups armed for different purposes. This brings to mind the current position of the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad (MNLA), which rebelled in 2012 under the leadership of the Tuaregs, emerged as an armed movement in the northern regions of the country and declared its independence from Mali. Contrary to popular belief, the Tuareg-led armed insurgency in the northern regions is as old as the post-colonial Malian state. The recent crisis in the Sahel region is one of the most serious since the end of the Cold War, with dire long-term implications for the region's security. This article aims to provide a clearer understanding of the past and present of the crisis by examining various parameters on a historical plane that considers the Tuareg's persistent rebellion against Bamako. For this reason, it will first examine the political conjuncture in post-colonial and independent Mali, and then discuss the roots of the Azawad conflict and the potential threats it poses in today's political environment.

Political nomadism and the Jihadist ‘Safe Haven’ in northern Mali: an entry point through Tuareg relational political dynamics

ABSTRACTJihadist groups have found a ‘safe haven’ in northern Mali. They have managed this by operating strategically to establish themselves and to develop relationships with local communities, but characteristics of the environment have also facilitated their development and survival. In northern Mali, the political landscape is fragmented, and replete with competition between the central authority and various groups of local elites, who are themselves divided. I conceptualise this fluid environment as a context that incentivises ‘political nomadism’. Using the Tuareg communities as an entry point, I explore the complex dynamics between local and national political actors and jihadist groups in northern Mali. I argue that the jihadist ‘safe haven’ in northern Mali is highly relational and has been facilitated by the form of political nomadism practiced in the region since the 1990s. The article is based on eight months of fieldwork conducted between 2016 and 2017 in Mali and Niger.

The Spread of Jihadism in the Sahel. Part 1

Following the occupation of northern Mali by jihadist groups in 2012, the national and international military response failed to counter their influence. Having spread to neighbouring countries of Burkina Faso and Niger, jihadism is now on the doorstep of some countries in the Gulf of Guinea, such as Togo and Benin. This article analyses in three parts the main factors that have been exploited (instrumentalised) by these jihadists groups in the Sahel, a strategy that they could replicate in the countries mentioned above.

Malaria asymptomatic carriage in the Sahelian region: the challenge associated to young adults

Abstract Background Mali and Senegal have made important efforts to control malaria. After a period of decline, the number of cases has remained stable for several years. Asymptomatic carriage acting as a reservoir could explain malaria persistence despite malaria control. Mass drug administration (MDA) is a candidate intervention that could help to accelerate the decreasing of malaria transmission if favourable epidemiologic context and good adherence are met. We aimed to update asymptomatic reservoir description along a Sahelian ecological gradient and study MDA acceptability. Methods We conducted an open cohort in 8 villages in Mali and Senegal including all household members sampled aged &amp;gt;6 months. We measured P. falciparum infections prevalence by qPCR in 4 surveys: 2 in dry season 2021, 1 in rainy season 2021 and 1 in dry season 2022. We measured prospective acceptability of MDA in cohort aged ≥15 years in Senegal by questionnaire. We explored risk factors associated to asymptomatic infections and acceptability score with multilevel logistic and linear models. Results We included 168 households and 1428 participants in at least 1 survey. In preliminary results, prevalence of P. falciparum infections was 11% in dry season 2021 in Senegal, 20% in central Mali and 60% in Northern Mali. Young adults between 15 to 24 years old were more likely to carry asymptomatic infections in dry season compared to children &amp;lt;5 years old (OR = 5.74 [2.99;11.04]). MDA presented a good acceptability with a mean score of 3.5 (score between -7 and 7). Young adults had lower acceptability compared to older participants (β=−1.07 [-1.82,-0.32]). Conclusions Young adults were important asymptomatic carriers in Senegal and Mali but were less likely to accept to participate in MDA. Key messages • Young adults represent a public health challenge that need to be address to reach malaria elimination. • Specific sensibilization could be implement to improve adherence to malaria control interventions.

Eyelet Wiring in Closed Reduction in the Treatment of Mandibular Fracture: A Case Report

The mandibular fracture becomes frequent in the region of Tombouctou northern Mali. Owing to the absence of Oral and Maxillofacial team, limited complementary exams; and limited surgical tools, we decided to practice closed reduction for favorable, limited displacement of mandibular fracture as the ideal alternative method of treatment for mandibular fractures using Eyelet wiring which is rapid, simple and costs less to the patient.

The 2012 Tuareg-Arab Uprising in Northern Mali and Regional Actors: The Impact of Libya and Algeria

Despite the peace agreement signed in Algeria in 2015, the Tuareg-Arab uprising in northern Mali is still one of the main conflicts that threaten security and stability in the Sahel. Regional actors played an undeniable role both in the development of the crisis and in the solution attempts. For this reason, this article aims to examine the development of the crisis that started in Mali in 2012 and continues today through the regional policies of Libya and Algeria. The fact that many Tuareg tribes lived in the southern cities of both countries caused them to be closely involved in the crisis in Mali and to be involved in the process. Muammar Gaddafi, the former leader of Libya, has been the biggest supporter of the Tuareg society within the framework of his pan-Africanist policies. The Tuareg youth who took refuge in Libya in the 1980s not only returned to their country and started the 1990 uprising, but also laid the foundations for the 2012 uprising. As the spiritual father of Tuaregs, Gaddafi's sudden death in 2011 is also cited as one of the main reasons for the 2012 rebellion in northern Mali. On the other hand, Algeria, which has a large Tuareg population in its southern cities, acted as a mediator not only in the 2012 uprising but also in the uprisings in Mali since the 1960s . They hosted the Peace and Reconciliation Agreement in Mali in 2015. This article is important in that it examines Maghreb-Sahel relations from a regional perspective, which cannot find enough space in the literature where existing studies on the crisis mostly focus on international actors. By evaluating transnational identities, minority issues and regional migration from a postcolonial perspective in supplement to political mobilization and regional security issues around the Mali crisis, this paper will provide a comprehensive understanding of the region.

From Militia to Army: Ganda Koy's Struggle for Political Legitimacy in Mali

Abstract: In response to the occupation of northern Mali in 2012, Ganda Koy, a primarily Songhay militia, has attempted to increase its political legitimacy within and beyond Mali, in part through more formalized integration within the Malian army. To justify such integration, many of its leaders have highlighted its combat and surveillance prowess while portraying it as supportive of a racially and ethnically unified Mali, thereby contrasting it with more Tuareg- or Arabseparatist militias based in the Sahara Desert. It has presented itself as a grassroots organization; however, many in its ranks publicly argue for a more Songhay- and Blacknationalist approach to Malian politics. While such an attitude might privately resonate among much of the political elite in Bamako, it contrasts with Mali's postcolonial myth as a harmonious ethnic melting pot and serves to undermine Ganda Koy's integration in more formal state institutions.

From Militia to Army: Ganda Koy's Struggle for Political Legitimacy in Mali

Abstract: In response to the occupation of northern Mali in 2012, Ganda Koy, a primarily Songhay militia, has attempted to increase its political legitimacy within and beyond Mali, in part through more formalized integration within the Malian army. To justify such integration, many of its leaders have highlighted its combat and surveillance prowess while portraying it as supportive of a racially and ethnically unified Mali, thereby contrasting it with more Tuareg- or Arabseparatist militias based in the Sahara Desert. It has presented itself as a grassroots organization; however, many in its ranks publicly argue for a more Songhay- and Blacknationalist approach to Malian politics. While such an attitude might privately resonate among much of the political elite in Bamako, it contrasts with Mali's postcolonial myth as a harmonious ethnic melting pot and serves to undermine Ganda Koy's integration in more formal state institutions.

The Hassani dialect in southern Algeria between diversity and wealth

The Hassani dialect is the dialect spoken in southern Algeria, it spreads - in addition to the city of Tindouf - in Sakia El Hamra and the Gold Valley in Mauritania, southern Morocco and northern Mali. It resulted from the mixing of the languages of the Arabs coming from the East with the Berber languages from Sanhaja on the one hand, and the African Negro elements on the other hand.&#x0D; The Hassani dialect is distinguished by its interesting singing in various oral expressive styles. In a desert society in which writing and its means are reduced, oral expressions have become the only means of communication that convey experiences and preserve collective memory.&#x0D; The Hassani dialect includes a rich poetic heritage, which is characterized by its various meters and circles that cover all aspects of expression. It also includes a large number of proverbs and wisdom that are distinguished by their connection to man and the earth. &#x0D; In this study, we will deal with this diversity and what distinguishes it, through a reading in the Diwan manuscript of Hassan weld laerab in the Hassani dialect. He is one of the scholars of the city of Tindouf and its notables, who composed a huge collection in the Hassani dialect that is considered a reference to the social, cultural, and political life that prevailed in the city of Tindouf in the nineteenth century. This study comes as a new addition, as it aims to unveil the status of the Hassani dialect in southern Algeria, as it will contribute to preserving the Algerian identity. And in the formation of the Algerian personality, which is characterized by dialectical and cultural diversity.

Detection of Ring Structures and Their Surrounding Tectonic Pattern in South-Algeria, North-Mali and North- Niger based on Satellite Data

This study is focused on the detection of circular features with different sizes, origins, and state of erosion as well as on their surrounding tectonic pattern based on different satellite images of Southern Algeria, Northern Mali and Northern Niger. Sentinel 2- and Landsat 8/9-images and Sentinel 1- and ALOS L-band Phased Array Synthetic Aperture Radar (PALSAR)-radar data help to identify larger ring structures and smaller circular features, most of them related to magmatic intrusions into the subsurface, but also to cosmic impacts, with varying ages and state of erosion. Some of them seem to be unknown so far as they are partly covered by aeolian sediments and become only visible on radar images. Digital Elevation Model (DEM) data and the DEM derived morphometric maps support these investigations in a GeoInformation System (GIS) embedded environment. Some of the ring structures are only visible on morphometric maps, traced by circular arrangements of slope gradients or concentric drainage patterns. The large, circular structures and the smaller circular features such as volcanic features (cinder cones, calderas, maars, impact craters) were digitized and merged in a GIS with available geologic information.

African Policy of France in 2017–2023

The geopolitical transformations of modern times marked the beginning of the end of French dominance in Western and Central Tropical Africa. The article names the main determinants of the process of degradation of the French model of neo-colonialism. Among these, the author refers to the destruction of Libyan statehood, the ensuing invasion of militants of Islamist associations into the territory of the Sahel and the consolidation of Islamists into the Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) unit, the uprising of the Tuareg in northern Mali and the proclamation of the unrecognized state of Azawad in the Sahel, the operation of the French troops “Barkhane” in the territory of the countries of the military-political bloc G5S.According to the author, the failure of operation “Barkhane”, the inability of the French troops to effectively resist Islamic terrorists provoked discontent among the citizens of the CAR, Mali and Burkina Faso. In these African states, coups d’état took place, as a result of which puppet pro-French political elites were removed from power and regimes oriented towards Moscow were established.

The Armed Conflict in the Sahel Region and Efforts of the ECOWAS to Settle it

The article describes the armed conflict in the Sahel region, lasting for ten years and affecting three countries: Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger. The objective of research is to characterise and assess the activities of the regional organisation ECOWAS in the context of Sahel peace-settlement. The Sahel conflict was a direct consequence of destruction of the Libyan state, as a result of the civil war and NATO military intervention in 2011, which created conditions for rebel invasion to Mali in January 2012. The ECOWAS initially tried to solve the conflict by means of mediation, at the same time considering deployment of peacemakers. The war in the Sahel region involved international terrorist groups and resulted in an attempt to establish an Islamic state in Northern Mali. The radicalisation of insurgents led to a collapse of peace talks in early 2013. The French military intervention in January 2013 had only temporary effect due to employment of guerrilla tactics by the terrorists. The ECOWAS troops were deployed to Mali, but the conflict further expanded to neighbouring Burkina Faso and Niger. The Sahel conflict poses a serious threat to the entire Community, because it has caused degradation of social and political situation in the affected countries and tends to spread to the South to the Gulf of Guinea. The ECOWAS peace-settlement efforts have not yet succeeded due to limited personnel and resources of the organisation, however, cooperation among its member-states has so far proved useful in preventing the spread of terrorist operations to the South towards the Gulf of Guinea. The armed conflict in the Sahel region has resulted in military coups d’état in Mali and Burkina Faso, which is a matter of concern for the ECOWAS that aims at strengthening democracy and good governance among member-states. The research resulted in revelation of the dilemma for the ECOWAS: to continue support to military regimes in Sahel to combat terrorism or impose sanctions against them. The author argues that sanctions can be counterproductive and allow extremists to strengthen their positions in the Sahel region.

Conflict and Child Mortality in Mali: A Synthetic Control Analysis

AbstractIndirect effects of conflict on mortality of vulnerable groups are as important, or more important, than the direct effects. However, data limitations and methodological challenges hinder the estimation of excess deaths produced by conflict, and few studies explore the mechanisms by which conflict harms civilian populations. We estimate the impact of the Malian conflict on child mortality over the period 2012–2018 using Demographic Health Survey data. We use birth histories to build time series of child mortality, and we employ novel synthetic control methods to show that the Malian conflict significantly increased child mortality in northern Mali. We conduct a difference‐in‐difference analysis of the impact of conflict on key determinants of maternal and child health and conclude that a reduction in access to safe sanitation and to child vaccinations in conflict areas was among the most likely causes of the increase in mortality. Northern Mali is today one of the poorest and most neglected areas of the world where humanitarian assistance is urgently needed.