Northeastern Jordan Research Articles

A pastoral landscape for millennia: Investigating pastoral mobility in northeastern Jordan using quantitative spatial analyses

Northeastern Jordan is one of the few remaining regions in the Middle East where pastoral nomadism is still practiced. In this desert region, pastoral mobility is an adapted land use able to cope with low rainfall rates, great seasonal and annual rainfall variations and thus heterogeneous vegetation and water availability. During winter, herders and their livestock move into the desert; in summer they move to the desert margins to places with perennial water supply. First traces of mobile pastoralism date back to the beginning of the Late Neolithic.Within the basaltic region of northeastern Jordan, there is a dense distribution of archaeological remains; some of them can be linked to pastoral groups due to the herders' ancient practice of building agglomerations of sub-circular enclosures ('clustered enclosures') made of basalt boulders for corralling their flocks and domestic activities. These features provide an excellent opportunity to investigate a landscape that shows traces of pastoral activity since eight to nine Millennia.In this study, 9118 clustered enclosures in the northeastern Jordanian basalt desert have been systematically recorded using satellite imagery. In order to investigate potential migration or communication routes, grazing lands and social interactions of former pastoralists, we examine their first- and second-order characteristics using distance and density based approaches of point pattern analyses by integrating geomorphometric and geomorphological site properties. The results of this spatial analysis are combined with available archaeological data and a review on traditional herding practices in northeastern Jordan. Overall, the results demonstrate that the observed spatial distribution of clustered enclosures is influenced locally by natural characteristics but regionally by cultural practices.

Nothing but Cold Ashes? The Cairn Burials of Jebel Qurma, Northeastern Jordan

Throughout the basaltic uplands of northeastern Jordan, there are countless large and small mounds of stone (cairns), which are the burial places of people who roamed the desert many hundreds or thousands of years ago. These numerous graves have never been systematically investigated, and little is known about their construction, date, and variability, let alone about their deceased occupants. This picture is now changing owing to an ongoing program of survey and excavation in the Jebel Qurma region, close to the border of Jordan and Saudi Arabia. These investigations point towards complex and entangled arrangements of cairn use and mortuary practices over time, when Early Bronze Age cemeteries are replaced by singular, impressive tower tombs and conical ring cairns in the Hellenistic to Byzantine period. The reuse of these tombs is a recurrent feature, emphasizing the focal and enduring role of these monuments to both the dead and the living.

Preliminary analysis of the Late Natufian ground stone from Shubayqa 1, Jordan

Shubayqa 1 is a newly identified early and late Natufian site in the harra desert of northeastern Jordan. In addition to buildings, and rich chipped stone, faunal, and botanical assemblages, the site has produced a large collection of ground stone tools. This paper presents the result of a preliminary study of the ground stone artefacts associated with the late Natufian phase. Results indicate that while the assemblage is overall very similar to other Natufian sites in the Mediterranean zone, there are also some notable differences. Although grinding rather than pounding tools appear to be more important at the site, many tools were seemingly involved in both grinding and pounding activities. We hypothesize that this dual function could be explained by the processing of rhizome tubers, which were found in abundance at the site, and which may have represented an important food source for the inhabitants. In addition, we argue that the relationship between ground stone tools and cereal processing has been overemphasized and the processing of other plant food resources, in this case tubers could have been equally significant. While the processing of plant foods was one function, many tools are also associated with pigment stains, suggesting that they were involved in the processing of non-vegetal matter.

Milestones for a tentative chronological framework for the late prehistoric colonization of the basalt desert (north-eastern Jordan)

The discovery, in recent years, of a number of Chalcolithic/Early Bronze Age hillfort sites east of Jawa, provides a new perspective on settlement activities in the hinterland of Jawa. Recent surveys and soundings at two of these hillfort sites, namely Tulul al-Ghusayn and Khirbet al-Ja'bariya, have provided a series of AMS dates which are considered here in relation to the recently published first set of AMS dates from Jawa itself. Of particular importance are the fortification systems at these settlements, which (may) provide new insights into the evolution of fortifications in the late prehistory of South-west Asia.

Ancient runoff agriculture at Early Bronze Age Jawa (Jordan): Water availability, efficiency and food supply capacity

Located in the basalt desert of northeastern Jordan, Early Bronze Age (EBA) Jawa is regarded as one of the major settlements in the Middle East during the 4th millennium BCE. In addition to a sophisticated water storage system, the existence of three complex agricultural terrace systems based on runoff and floodwater irrigation in the close vicinity was recently revealed.This paper investigates the impact of these water management strategies on harvest yields and the scale of the ‘on-site’ crop production at Jawa by applying a crop simulation model (CropSyst). Simulations for the cultivation of winter barley, winter wheat and lentils were performed for the period from 1983 to 2014. To simulate the different runoff irrigation schemes, a curve-number-based rainfall-runoff model was applied. To estimate the number of people that could have been supplied by the local food production, simple calculations based on metabolic calorie requirements and agricultural and pastoral production rates were conducted.This study shows that the runoff farming systems of EBA Jawa are relatively effective under current rainfall conditions. Even during dryer seasons, the simulated crop yields are much higher under runoff irrigation/floodwater irrigation than under non-irrigated conditions. On average the crop yields increase by 1.5 to 6 times, depending on crop type and runoff irrigation level. Moreover, a marked decrease in crop failures could be observed. The total crop and animal production could have satisfied the nutritional requirements of about 500 to 1000 persons per year. Considering the estimated maximum population for EBA Jawa, ranging from 3400 to 5000 people (Helms, 1981), local production did not meet the basic needs of all inhabitants. This indicates that trade might have been an important branch of Jawa's economy in order to supplement food resources. Moreover, former population estimates for ancient Jawa might be overstated.

Desert agricultural systems at EBA Jawa (Jordan): Integrating archaeological and paleoenvironmental records

Located in the arid basalt desert of northeastern Jordan, the settlement of Jawa is by far the largest and best-preserved archaeological site in the region. The Early Bronze Age (EBA) settlement phase of Jawa (3500–3000 BCE) is characterized by a highly sophisticated water storage system made of a series of pools, dams, and canals. In addition, recent archaeological and geoarchaeological surveys have uncovered agricultural terrace systems in the nearby vicinity. In this study, four of these runoff terrace systems were investigated by detailed mapping. Additionally, thirteen sediment profiles from inside and outside the terrace systems were recorded and sampled. The examined samples were analyzed for bulk chemistry, texture, phytoliths, diatoms, and dung spherulites to supply information on the environmental and depositional conditions. The terrace systems were dated using optically stimulated luminescence (OSL). Ancient terrace agriculture was practiced on slopes, small plateaus, and valleys close to Jawa through the use of surface canals, which collected and diverted floodwater from nearby wadis or runoff from adjacent slopes. The terraced fields were usually arranged in cascades and comprised a system of risers, canals, and spillways. The terrace fills investigated yield OSL ages of around 3300 BCE, indicating that the terraces were constructed in the Early Bronze Age. The terrace fill sequences are composed of mixed unstratified fine sediments of local origin, reflecting low-energy fluvial deposition regimes. The phytolith record is dominated by Pooid grasses that include the most common Near Eastern cereals, such as wheat and barley. Increased phytolith concentrations in terrace fill sediments, as compared to samples from non-terrace deposits nearby, suggest increased plant growth and water availability within the terraces. Whether the terrace systems were used for growing food crops only or whether they were additionally used for grazing cannot be ascertained. Overall, quantitative phytolith analyses in arid environments are well suited to investigate temporal and spatial distributions of plant microfossil concentrations and their relation to human activity or paleoenvironmental conditions.

PRELIMINARY REPORT ON A SURVEY IN THE HAZIMAH PLAINS: A HAMAD LANDSCAPE IN NORTH-EASTERN JORDAN

In June 2013, an archaeological survey was carried out in the Hazimah plains, situated in the Jebel Qurma region of north-eastern Jordan. These plains surround the so-called Black Desert or harra, which has been known to contain an extremely rich archaeological and epigraphic record. In contrast to the harra, little is known about the archaeology of the surrounding hamad landscapes, and the survey presented in this paper aims to contribute to filling in this gap of knowledge. Initially, the survey aims to investigate the long-term history of settlement and land-use of this seemingly hostile environment, and, at the same time, seeks out an efficient methodology for locating the remains of the largely mobile communities that inhabited the Hazimah plains in the past.

A landscape of preservation: late prehistoric settlement and sequence in the Jebel Qurma region, north-eastern Jordan

Recent fieldwork in the Jebel Qurma region, in the basalt wasteland east of Azraq, revealed a large number of prehistoric sites, dating from the 7th to the late 4th millennia cal bc. While some sites were little more than lithic scatters over a few dozen square metres, others were of impressive size, up to 8 hectares in extent and characterized by hundreds of stone-built structures. The new data demonstrate considerable diversity in site layout as well as clear shifts in habitation patterns and locational preferences through time. These new insights require a re-evaluation of current thoughts on settlement and community organization in the basaltic uplands of north-eastern Jordan in the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods.

‘Nomad Villages’ in north-eastern Jordan: from Roman Arabia to Umayyad Urdunn

The traces of dispersed houses in desert or steppic regions of northern Jordan and southern Syria have been augmented by recent discoveries and fieldwork. The evidence suggests that they are dated to the Umayyad period, although often with traces of Late Roman/Jafnid (Ghassanid) origins. The new discoveries allow an enrichment of our knowledge for the period and provide a contrast with the better known Desert Castles and Qusur that dominate the evidence for this period.

Palestine: Children Laboring

Palestine: Children Laboring

Water in Azraq (Jordan): a fluid link between state and society

Azraq, a rural village in north-eastern Jordan, was once famous for its luxurious marshes and wetlands but today is starved of water. This paper looks at the role of water as a crucial medium in the definition and consolidation of contemporary relations between the Jordanian government and Azraq’s inhabitants. Essentially, this article approaches water as a relational medium through which power manifests itself in the processes of access, distribution and utilisation. The article argues that putting this relationship and the power that flows through it in an historical context allows for a better understanding of people’s contemporary interactions with water in the intimacy of the domestic sphere.

Effect of various absorbing materials on the thermal performance of solar stills

There is a strong need to improve the single slope solar still thermal performance and increase the production rate of distilled water. Different types of absorbing materials were used to examine their effect on the yield of solar stills. These absorbing materials are of two types: coated and uncoated porous media (called metallic wiry sponges) and black volcanic rocks. Four identical solar stills were manufactured using locally available materials. The first three solar stills contain black coated and uncoated metallic wiry sponges made from steel quality AISI 430 type, and black rocks collected from Mafraq Area in north-eastern Jordan. The fourth still is used as reference still which contains no absorbing materials (only black painted basin). The results showed that the uncoated sponge has the highest water collection during day time, followed by the black rocks and then coated metallic wiry sponges. On the other hand, the overall average gain in the collected distilled water taking into the consideration the overnight water collections were 28%, 43% and 60% for coated and uncoated metallic wiry sponges and black rocks respectively.

A GIS Database for Sustainable Management of Shallow Water Resources in the Tulul al Ashaqif Region, NE Jordan

The Tulul al Ashaqif region is an arid area in northeastern Jordan that contains renewable shallow perched aquifer water. The study of these aquifers has led to better understanding of the recharge process as well as other hydrological issues related to management of water resources in similar areas. The use of geographic information system (GIS)-based predictive mapping to locate areas of high potential for shallow perched aquifer sites is explored in this paper. Knowledge of the hydrologic, geologic and geomorphic variables influencing the development of shallow aquifer formation is used to produce GIS layers representing the spatial distribution of those variables. The GIS layers are then analyzed to identify locations where combinations of environmental variables match patterns observed at known sites. In addition, information can be deduced on the volume of water that is available and the best locations to site recharge facilities. Moreover, future development of these resources requires consideration of possible adverse affects of usage on these resources. The database developed can be used for this purpose as well.

Petrology and Origin of Ultramfic Xenoliths from North Eastern Jordan Volcanoes

The distribution of major, minor and trace elements in the Cenozoic alkali basalt from north-eastern Jordan indicates a homogeneous lava flow from a mantle source. These basaltic rocks contain abundant upper mantle xenoliths (spinal lherzolite, harzburgile and olivine- websterite). Theses xenoliths contain olivine, orthopyroxne, clinoporoxene and a few amounts of spinal. Their mineral assemblages, chemistry, texture and major elements abundances indicate they were derived and equilibrated under upper mantle conditions within temperature range for 970-1090°C. Pressure estimates based on the spinal lherzolite stability field restrict the xenoliths source depth to around 65 km. The concentrations of incompatible trace elements (Ba, Rb and Sr.) imply a derivation from ultramafic predictive source from the upper mantle with low degree of melting (

Petrology, Geochemistry and Magnetization of Remah Volcano North Eastern Jordan

Peridotite ultramafic mantle xenoliths are occurring abundantly in the Harrat Al-Shaam basaltic province. Jabal Remah volcano is located in the Jordanian parts of the plateau and contains considerable amounts of mantle xenoliths within its pyroclastic successions. Mineralogical investigations show that the xenoliths are mostly of the spinel Iherzolite type, which are characterized by a protogranular texture. Modally, the xenoliths are composed of olivine (55-65%), orthopyroxene (12-16 %) clinopyroxene, (10-15%) and spinel (- 5%). The xenoliths are classified as type I and belong to the Cr-diopside group. They are characterized by its higher content of MgO (42.1-43.2%), Cr (2460-2540 ppm) and Ni (2196-2301 ppm). Three selected spinel-lherzolite xenolith samples were analysed for their magnetic characteristics. They were found to behave similarly in their ferromagnetic phase, as indicated by their narrow hysteresis curves and because they never reach saturation even at high-applied field. They exhibit ferrimagnetic hystertesis curves similar to world known mantle xenoliths, which is due to the presence of Fe in the form of oxides.

A 12-case outbreak of pharyngeal plague following the consumption of camel meat, in north–eastern Jordan

Between late January and early February 1997, an outbreak of plague, associated with cervical lymphadenopathy and fever, occurred in the Jordanian village of Azraq ad-Druze, which lies about 50 km west of the border with Saudi Arabia. The 12 cases who presented at hospital were initially assumed to have tularaemia, and all were successfully treated with gentamicin. When, however, their sera were tested for evidence of Yersinia pestis or Francisella tularensis infection (using haemagglutination, enzyme immuno-assays for specific IgM or the F1 antigen of Y. pestis, and micro-agglutination tests), all 12 were found to have anti-Y. pestis IgM. Three dogs shot near the Saudi Arabian border were also found seropositive for antibodies against Y. pestis. Eleven of the 12 patients reported that, 2-4 days before their symptoms appeared, they had eaten the meat cut from the carcass of the same camel, either raw (10 cases) or cooked (one case). All 12 patients were diagnosed as cases of pharyngeal plague (the first cases of plague reported in Jordan for more than 80 years), caused by Y. pestis that most had acquired when they ate raw meat from a camel that was infected with the pathogen.

Formation and properties of aridic soils of Azraq Basin in northeastern Jordan

Aridisols occupy a wide and significant part of Jordan. The majority of soils in the Azraq Basin, northeastern Jordan, are aridisols. A database on aridisols and land characteristics in northeastern Jordan is needed to allow rational planning of land and water resources utilization. The objectives of this paper are to: characterize the main soil types in the area, and identify the main processes contributing to their genesis and evolution. For this purpose eight representative profiles were selected for this study and soil samples were collected and their chemical and physical properties were examined in the laboratory. The natural vegetation is desert shrubs and short grasses. The sparseness of the vegetation resulted in low SOM content and the presence of ochric epipedons in all of the studied soils. The genesis of these soils accounts for the accumulation of calcium carbonate, soluble salts, and gypsum in the subsoil. Carbonate, clay eluviation–illuviation, and salt accumulation are the dominant pedogenic processes in these soils. Silt content increased toward the surface indicating eolian activity. Clay content increased with depth indicating illuviation of clay. Clay illuviation and argillic horizon development within these soils is assumed to be a relict feature from presumably more humid climates during the Quaternary. Desert pavements cover the surfaces of these soils and provide a unique obstacle for agricultural development. The major restrictions to agricultural land use in the area are very low infiltration rate, low permeability, and high erodibility. Proper management practices should be adopted if such soils are to be cultivated.

Shallow perched groundwater, a flux of deep CO 2, and near-surface water–rock interaction in Northeastern Jordan: An example of positive feedback and Darwin's “warm little pond”

Darwin's “warm little pond”, where he envisioned life began, was perhaps metaphorical. However, it included the notion of separation, just as the Galápagos Islands are separated from mainland South America. We have studied a location where simple life flourishes far from other abundant life, i.e., a permanently damp surficial zone that is surrounded by stark desert in NE Jordan. NE Jordan is a young basaltic plateau with fresh outcrops. However, a positive-feedback process has produced local weathering at Biyar el Ghussein in the Tulul al Ashaqif area. Calcite, smectites, and goethite occur with parent minerals. Water that is inducing this weathering has come from rainfall, but the isotopic composition of abundant carbonate veins reveals a deep source, i.e., volcanogenic CO 2. A local coincidence of groundwater and rising CO 2 is inducing a positive-feedback process, enhancing a weakly perched water table through weathering of basalt. Additional perched water dissolves more volcanogenic CO 2, accelerating decomposition of the basalt, and enlarging the aquiclude.

Arid soils of the Badia region of northeastern Jordan: Potential use for sustainable agriculture

Arid lands have always been important to the world's human populations, but their significance has increased over the past few decades because of population demographics and continued use of natural resources (Hoekstra & Shachak, 1999). Jordan is faced with increasing population pressure in its already settled areas; hence, it will have to utilize the underpopulated Badia, which forms 85% of Jordan's land surface, so that it can contribute to the economy in a sustainable way without damaging the fragile desert environments. This can be done by gaining a better understanding of the natural resource base and suggesting actions which will lead to the protection of the resources and to their sustainable usage for the long-term benefit of the local population. Azraq basin, about 12,750 km2 in size, is located in the northeastern Jordanian Badia region (Shahbaz & Sunaa, 2000). To develop soil resources in the Azraq basin, research is needed to establish the best practices for their management, improvement, and maintenance. Four different areas in the Basin were investigated. The choice of these areas was based on geologic studies which showed the proximity of these areas to promising underground water resources. Most of the studied soils contain considerable amounts of carbonates. This leads to alkaline reaction of the soils with pH values mostly above 8, resulting in low availability of certain nutrients like phosphorus and micronutrients. If such soils are to be cultivated, proper management practices should be adopted to ensure the availability of those nutrients to crops. Analysis of the collected soil samples also showed that those soils contain soluble salts in the upper horizons in amounts enough to impede plant growth. Salts would have to be leached using good quality water before successful growing of crops can be carried out. Most of the studied soils have high erodibility and susceptibility to seal and crust formation. The soils in some of the studied areas contain high amounts of gypsum and carbonates and also very high content of soluble salts. Such areas would have to be excluded from any agricultural development. Reclaiming soils in such areas would be too expensive and not feasible economically. The use of organic amendments would be highly recommended to improve the physical and chemical characteristics of the Badia soils in order to achieve a sustainable agricultural production.

Geomorphic features and soil formation of arid lands in Northeastern Jordan

Arid and semiarid lands occupy about one-third of the Earth's land surface. Interpretation of soil formation and geomorphic features of arid lands is needed to assess their soil ecological potentials, limitations, problems and management needs. The objective of this paper was to study the geomorphic features and soil formation of the arid lands in northeastern Jordan, to provide information that could be used by land managers in the study area and other arid land areas. Five representative soil pedons were excavated and described in the field. Soil samples from each horizon per pedon were taken to the laboratory for chemical and physical analyses. Geomorphic features of the area were also studied. Most of studied land surfaces are plains where eolian deflation has exposed loose gravels consisting predominantly of pebbles forming desert pavements. Desert pavements cover most of the land surface, excluding the mud playas, and are composed of basalt clasts. The accumulation of calcium carbonate and gypsum within these soils create problems for their agricultural development. Accumulation of eolian fine-grained silt has resulted in the formation of a vesicular horizon. The climatic variations during the late quaternary and the late Holocene periods contributed to the development of the desert pavement and the vesicular horizons. Clay illuviation and argillic horizon development within these soils is assumed to be a relict feature from more humid climates during the Quaternary. Sustainable agricultural development of such arid lands may not be easy. In general, these soils have high erodibility, high runoff generation potential, high susceptibility to seal and crust formation, poor water-holding capacity, pedon hardening and structural instability.