Northeast Asia Research Articles

Coupling Coordination Relationship and Spatiotemporal Heterogeneity between Urbanization and Ecosystem Services in the Songhua River Basin

Rapid urbanization in the Songhua River Basin (SRB), a crucial ecological barrier in China and Northeast Asia, has led to the degradation of ecosystem service functions and a decline in their value, thereby posing a significant threat to regional ecological security. Clarifying the complex coupling coordination relationship between urbanization and ecosystem services (ESs) and identifying the spatiotemporal heterogeneity of their interactions will facilitate the high-quality and coordinated development of urbanization and ESs in the SRB. This study employed a systems approach, treating urbanization and ESs as overarching systems and delineating different aspects of urbanization and ecosystem service functions as subsystems within these systems. The spatiotemporal characteristics of urbanization and the ecosystem service value (ESV) in the SRB from 1985 to 2021 were revealed. The coupling coordination relationship and the spatiotemporal heterogeneity of the interactions between urbanization and ESs in the SRB at both the system and subsystem levels were analyzed using the coupling coordination degree (CCD) model and the spatiotemporal geographically weighted regression (GTWR) model. The findings indicated that during the study period: (1) The urbanization index of SRB rose from 0.09 to 0.34, while the ESV experienced a decrease from 2091.42 × 107 CNY to 2002.44 × 107 CNY. (2) The coupling coordination degree (CCD) between urbanization and ESs in the SRB at both the system and subsystem levels increased significantly, generally transitioning from the moderately unbalanced to the basically balanced stage. Areas with high CCD values were mainly distributed in ecological function areas and low-level urbanized areas, while areas with low CCD values were mainly distributed in grassland ecological degradation areas, ecologically fragile areas, resource-dependent old industrial cities, and highly urbanized areas. (3) The subsystems of urbanization had an overall negative impact on Ess, with varying trends, but the spatial distribution pattern of the interactions remained relatively stable. Conversely, the subsystems of ESs all exhibited a trend of initially strengthening and then weakening their negative impacts on urbanization, and the spatial distribution pattern was highly correlated with the spatial distribution pattern of ESV in the SRB.

Temporal variation in river ice phenology of the Heilongjiang River in response to climate change

Study regionUpstream of the Heilongjiang River, located in Northeast Asia, is the transboundary river between China and Russia. Study focusUsing long-term hydrological records provided by the Mohe station in combination with multiple statistical approaches, we investigate how river ice phenology of the Heilongjiang River has varied during the period 1957–2016, and quantitatively assess the individual contribution of changes in different climatic factors to such variation in river ice phenology. New insights for the regionWe show the later occurrence for newly formed ice date, ice-on date, and freeze-up date and the earlier occurrence for beak-up date and ice-off date, ultimately leading to a decrease in persistence of river ice in the Heilongjiang River. River ice phenology exhibits a general lag response to climate change, with ranging from 1 to 5 months. Further attribution analysis that explicitly considers time-lag effect suggests that climate change plays a dominant role in regulating river ice phenology. More specifically, compared to other climatic factors, air pressure and maximum and minimum temperature changes have larger contributions to variation in river ice phenology, particularly for the delay of formation time. These findings provide technical basis and beneficial reference to the development of regional river management strategies involved in climate change adaptation framework.

Examining the distance-decay effect on obsidian lithic technological organization and its implications for raw material transportation: A case study from the Upper Paleolithic of Northeast Asia

This study conducts a comprehensive quantitative comparative analysis of the Upper Paleolithic obsidian industry in Northeast China and South Korea, examining the human adaptation, exploitation, and distribution of obsidian, juxtaposed with migration and interaction dynamics across the Mount Paektu (Paektusan) and Korean Peninsula. Integrating distance-decay theory with the hunter-gatherer social network model, and informed by new archaeological findings, our research addresses three vital domains: the supply zone of Paektusan obsidian, dispersal patterns, and lithic technological strategies correlated to obsidian availability.An obsidian raw material supply zone hypothesized to extend 100 km from Paektusan is established based on artifact frequency and size variations. Through a novel statistical approach, coupled with extensive database analysis of artifacts from three recent Northeast China excavations and existing Sino-Korean literature, our findings indicate a higher exploitation intensity of limited obsidian resources in South Korea, manifesting in specialized microlith use. The comparative analysis across five distance groups and Least Cost Path (LCP) models suggests the possibility of more geographically restricted southward material transport to South Korea. This research advances our understanding of the regional prehistoric exchange networks and offers fresh insights into the technological organization within the Upper Paleolithic obsidian industries of Northeast Asia. It underscores potential variations in raw material conveyance loss and foreshadows the investigative opportunities that may emerge from future data accessibility in North Korea.

Interstate power interconnection along with carbon dioxide emission constraint collaboration: Effective tool for low-carbon electric power expansion in Northeast Asia

Interstate electric power integration with the formation of interstate electric ties and power interconnection in Northeast Asia has been studied for several years. Research has examined the directions, indicators, costs, and systemic (integration) benefits (technical, economic, environmental, etc.) of forming such ties and grids. Studies conducted in different Northeast Asia countries have shown that despite the significant investments required to create an interstate electric ties infrastructure, which serves as the basis for interstate power grids and electricity markets development, participants of these interstate power grids and markets gain substantial benefits. These include reduced needs for installed and reserve generation capacity, lower electricity prices, increased overall flexibility of power resources, and accordingly, greater capability to integrate renewable energy sources. This results in reduced carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from fossil fuel power plants. The latter undoubtedly contributes to achieving the sustainable development goals set by the United Nations and reducing anthropogenic climate impact, which many countries globally (including Northeast Asia) have targeted via announced carbon neutrality by 2050–2060. The main target of the article is to conduct and present new multi-scenario study on forming a potential Northeast Asia’s interstate power grid under national and grid-wide (for the entire power system interconnection) carbon emission constraints. The mathematical model of electric power system expansion and dispatching was modified to account for carbon dioxide emission constraints and used for the study. The results of the study showed that the creation of interstate power grid in Northeast Asia accompanied by climate change collaboration among countries to control carbon dioxide emission would lead to effectively constraining of carbon dioxide emission in the subregion, which is the novelty of the study. The results of the study are useful and applicable for choosing particular ways, options, stages of formation and expansion of low-carbon power system interconnection in Northeast Asia.

A Study of Air Cargo Network of Airliner and Freighter at Major Airport in Northeast Asia through Social Network Analysis

A Study of Air Cargo Network of Airliner and Freighter at Major Airport in Northeast Asia through Social Network Analysis

영국 역사교과서의 고고학 자료 서술 특징과 시사점

This paper examines the characteristics of archaeological narratives in British history textbooks, where modern archaeology was established early. In the England, the National Curriculum has been in place since 1988, and the government has provided guidelines on what should be taught in history classes. According to the recently revised National Curriculum, the study of British prehistory and ancient history is intensively taught at the Key Stage 2, which corresponds to the 3rd to 6th grades of elementary school in Korea, and it is very characteristic that archaeological descriptions are intensively taught in the upper grades of elementary school in history textbooks. In other words, according to the most recent national curriculum in 2014, English students focus on prehistory, the Roman Britons, the Anglo-Saxons, and the Viking Age in the Key Stage 2, and in middle school, they move on to medieval history, and in high school, the subject of study in history textbooks becomes similar to our world history. In this situation, the history textbook of Key Stage 2, which is the upper grade of elementary school in the UK, was able to point out the current situation of effective use of various archaeological materials. The astonishing quality of British history textbooks is likely to have significant implications for Korean archaeology at the present stage of the full-fledged pursuit of popularization of archaeology. However, at the middle and high school levels, modern and contemporary history is mainly discussed, so the proportion of archaeology in textbooks is relatively reduced. The archaeological narrative aspect of the British history textbooks is considered to be very different from the current state of history textbooks in Northeast Asia, including Korea, and it is necessary to examine the background of the archaeological narrative in the future and the effect of educational activities using the textbooks on students.

Potential impacts of reduced winter Kara Sea ice on the dipole pattern of cold surge frequency over the tropical western Pacific

The impact of Arctic Sea ice melting on weather and climate extremes in the Northern Hemisphere has garnered widespread attention. Existing research has convincingly demonstrated the importance of this impact in mid-high latitudes, while its influence in areas beyond remains controversial. This study reveals the indirect influence of Kara Sea ice reduction on cold surge (CS) over the tropical western Pacific (TWP), with the East Asian jet stream serving as the connecting link. The leading mode of CSs over the TWP exhibits a zonal dipole characteristic, which is associated with cyclonic anomaly over the Philippine Sea. The enhanced cyclonic anomaly is caused by strengthened and northward-moved subtropical East Asian jet stream and weakened polar jet stream, which can lead to more CSs over the South China Sea and fewer CSs over the Philippine Sea. Such variations in the jet stream are contributed by the facilitated atmospheric blockings west of the Ural Mountains, which suppressed the circumpolar westerly winds and increased meridional temperature gradient in Northeast Asia. The connection between atmospheric blockings and Kara Sea ice can be confirmed through local vertical energy exchange. Simulations of the atmospheric response to the forcing of decreased Kara Sea ice support the proposed connection. Although there is no statistically significant correlation between tropical CSs and Kara Sea ice, this study highlights the potential impacts of Arctic climate change signal on weather and climate extremes over tropical regions.

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF WORD ORDER IN CHINESE AND JAPANESE LANGUAGES: PREVAILING PERCEPTIONS AND THE REAL SITUATION

Among linguists, there is a very widespread view that the Chinese and Japanese languages have a fixed word order. Indeed, in these languages, as in the absolute majority of languages, there is a basic word order that dominates: in Chinese it is SVO (subject→predicate→object), and in Japanese it is SOV (subject→object→predicate). However, over the past half century, when interlingual and intercultural relations grew rapidly in the conditions of globalization of economic and information space, when the mastery of foreign languages in Northeast Asia became a vital need, the norms of using the basic or peripheral word order acquired a certain structural and semantic regulation. The purpose of this study is to reveal the originality of solving the issue of basic and peripheral word order in the Chinese and Japanese languages. The object of study is the models of a simple sentence in these languages, the subject of study is the actual semantic-grammatical and pragmatic irregularity of basic and peripheral word orders in a comparison of the Chinese and Japanese language systems. The result of this research is the following conclusions. The Chinese and Japanese sentence structures regarding the order of subject, object, and predicate are flexible at three levels: syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic. Despite the basic SVO order, sentences with the SOV order function in the Chinese colloquial style: "把 (ba) clause", and "将（jiāng）sentence". Passive sentences have OSV order determined by the service words "被(bei)", "超（ràng）", "叫（jiào）", or "维（gěi）". SOV and OSV word orders are considered peripheral. In a Japanese sentence, the large number of case paradigm particles allows structural flexibility with respect to word order. In addition to the basic SOV order, there are also three peripheral variants: OSV, SVO, and OVS, which have the effect of highlighting syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic aspects. Sentences with peripheral word orders have a special pragmatic load.

Attribution of the concurrent extreme heatwaves in Northern Europe and Northeast Asia in July 2018

In July 2018, Northern Europe and Northeast Asia experienced unprecedented, concurrent extreme heatwaves. Utilizing the HadGEM3-A-N216 attribution model and dynamical adjustment method, we highlight that the internally-generated circulation was the predominant factor triggering these heatwaves both in Northern Europe and Northeast Asia. External forcings further amplify these heatwaves and contribute about 1 K surface air temperature (SAT) anomalies both in Northern Europe and Northeast Asia. Moreover, there is a statistically significant positive correlation of SAT between Northern Europe and Northeast Asia. An internal-generated zonal wave train spanning Eurasia was identified as a key circulation facilitating the concurrent heatwaves by instigating the simultaneous anomalous anticyclones in these two regions. Positive sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies in the North Atlantic plays a pivotal role in the formation of this zonal wave train. The negative SST anomalies in the northern Indian Ocean and tropical central Pacific can further amplify the magnitude of wave train, particularly in the Northeast Asia. In additions, the internal thermodynamic processes, especially soil moisture-SAT feedback can slightly damp the heatwaves in both regions. It is due to enhanced evaporative cooling and a reduction in upward sensible heat flux, linked to increased soil moisture in previous month.

Democratic “Fall,” China’s Rise, and the Limits of Illiberal Realignment in East Asia

Like much of the rest of the world, East Asia (Northeast and Southeast Asia) has recently experienced a democratic “fall” in which several electoral democracies have undergone autocratization. This synchronized with China’s rise through what can be called illiberal realignment as autocratizing regimes in the region have sought increasing material and ideological support from Beijing in the face of Western human rights criticism and occasional (although usually only the threat of ) sanctions. China has viewed this regress as a rejection of “Western-style democracy.” Yet a democratic “spring” which preceded the fall left a legacy of democratic normativity in the region as backsliding regimes continued to seek legitimacy through (however unfair and unfree) elections and (partial) liberalization. Residual democratic normativity combined with geopolitical insecurities have limited the region’s illiberal realignment toward China during this democratic fall.

Permafrost melting enhances growth but leads to less intra-annual density fluctuations in boreal Larix gmelinii forests at its southernmost limit in northeast China

Permafrost melting due to climate warming in recent decades has produced significant effects on forest ecosystems, especially the boreal biome at its southernmost limit in Asia. How this warming affects wood formation of trees at intra-annual resolution is unclear, yet is crucial for assessing the impact of permafrost melting on boreal forest growth. In this study, we compared the radial growth and intra-annual wood density fluctuations (IADFs) of Dahurian larch (Larix gmelinii Rupr.) at a permafrost (PF) and a non-permafrost (NPF) site at the southernmost permafrost limit in northeast China and quantified their relationships with climate factors. Drought in early summer was the main factor limiting growth of Dahurian larch. The basal area increment (BAI) of trees at both sites increased initially and then decreased in the 1980s, probably in response to warm-dry climate conditions. Earlywood IADFs (IADF-E) occurred in 14.0% and 9.3% of dated rings at the NPF and PF sites, while the frequency of latewood IADFs (IADF-L) was 6.8% and 2.7% at these two sites. The frequency of IADF-E in trees at both sites was positively and negatively related to June temperatures (and vapor pressure deficit) and precipitation, respectively, suggesting drought stress in June triggered the formation of IADF-E. The IADF-Ls were probably formed in response to warm temperatures in the late growing season. A higher BAI and a lower frequency of IADF-Es of trees at the PF site than at the NPF site indicated that permafrost melting could alleviate drought stress in early summer and promote radial growth of Dahurian larch. This greatly improved forest carbon sequestration and wood quality of some northeastern Asian boreal forests may offset to some extent the adverse effects of warming-drying climates at some sites of northeast Asia. Larch IADF-Es recorded extreme droughts in early summer, giving us a new sight for reconstructing high-frequency extreme climate events. If climate warming continues, the benefits of permafrost melting will gradually disappear and even turn negative due to warmer-dryer climate conditions. Our findings provide valuable information for boreal forest management and conservation under future global warming.

Suicidal Behavior of Australian Males, From an Ethnicity Perspective

Background Suicide is the 10th leading cause of death among Australian males. Despite the cultural diversity in Australia, there is a significant research gap in knowledge of suicidal behavior among Australian males from ethnically and culturally diverse backgrounds. The study aimed to estimate the prevalence and risk of suicidal behaviors among Australian males based on ethnicity, with an emphasis on those from ethnic-minority backgrounds. Methods We used data from the first wave of the Australian Longitudinal Study on Male Health. Multiple logistic regression models were used to determine the risk of suicidal behavior (lifetime suicide attempt, lifetime suicidal ideation, recent suicidal ideation) by ethnicity. Results Among ethnic minority males, Pacific Islander males also had the highest prevalence of lifetime suicide attempts (12.2%), while Middle Eastern (2.3%) and South-/North-East Asian males (2.9%) had the lowest rates. South American males had the highest recent suicidal ideation (18.2%), followed by Pacific Islanders (14.2%). The highest prevalence of lifetime suicidal thoughts was reported among males of mixed ethnicity (23.0%), followed by South American (14.6%) and Pacific Islander (13.5%) males. Most ethnic-minority groups had a lower risk of lifetime suicidal ideation compared with Australian males. Evidence regarding differences in recent suicidal ideation and lifetime suicide attempts between ethnic-minority and Australian-background males was inconclusive. Conclusion Evidence was found of differences in suicidal behaviors among Australian males based on ethnicity. Future research should use inclusive methodologies to confirm these associations and explore the underlying factors contributing to higher rates of suicidal behavior in specific populations.

Trust is key: Determinants of false beliefs about climate change in eight countries

Science has established the human-caused nature of climate change, yet the prevalence of climate-related misinformation persists, undermining public understanding and impeding collective action. Strikingly, existing research on belief in misinformation about climate change has disproportionately focused on WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic) countries. To move beyond this, our online survey (N = 8541) includes high-income countries in North America (US), Western Europe (France, Germany, UK) and East Asia (Japan), as well as an upper-middle income country in South America (Brazil) and lower-middle income countries in South Asia (India and Pakistan). By examining the interplay of news media usage, information sources, and trust in these sources, we advance our understanding of how these factors influence belief in climate change-related misinformation in diverse socio-cultural contexts. Across countries, we found that the strongest determinants of belief in misinformation about climate change were identifying as right-wing (compared with left-wing), consuming less offline news, having less trust in scientists, environmental activists, as well as international organizations, and having more trust in politicians, celebrities, and energy companies. Overall, trust in sources of information about climate change and demographic variables were much stronger predictors of belief in misinformation about climate change than reported news consumption (online, offline or on social media). These findings suggest that trust is key to understanding belief in false information about climate change.

Potential sanctions on the Northeast Asia supergrid: A network theory perspective

This study examines the impact of the potential imposition of cross-border sanctions in the proposed Northeast Asia supergrid under various scenarios. To predict the outcomes of plausible sanctions, we apply a network theory of sanctions to a simulation model of the Northeast Asia supergrid. We calculate the loss to each country connected to the supergrid by each scenario in which one country sanctions another country. Multilateral sanctions cause more loss than unilateral sanctions do, but multilateral sanctions are infeasible in some cases owing to energy dependencies among countries. Our simulation applies different rules on how to share the benefits generated by the supergrid. While the benefit-sharing rule affects the size of loss from sanctions, it does not change the availability of sanctions. China and Russia, as significant power exporters, hold a crucial role in implementing sanctions. China can enforce effective sanctions against Russia, Mongolia, Korea, and Japan. In contrast, Japan, not directly connected to China, is vulnerable to sanctions from other countries.

Genomic analysis uncovers novel candidate genes related to adaptation to tropical climates and milk production traits in native goats

BackgroundSince domestication, both evolutionary forces and human selection have played crucial roles in producing adaptive and economic traits, resulting in animal breeds that have been selected for specific climates and different breeding goals. Pakistani goat breeds have acquired genomic adaptations to their native climate conditions, such as tropical and hot climates. In this study, using next-generation sequencing data, we aimed to assess the signatures of positive selection in three native Pakistani goats, known as milk production breeds, that have been well adapted to their local climate.ResultsTo explore the genomic relationship between studied goat populations and their population structure, whole genome sequence data from native goat populations in Pakistan (n = 26) was merged with available worldwide goat genomic data (n = 184), resulting in a total dataset of 210 individuals. The results showed a high genetic correlation between Pakistani goats and samples from North-East Asia. Across all populations analyzed, a higher linkage disequilibrium (LD) level (– 0.59) was found in the Pakistani goat group at a genomic distance of 1 Kb. Our findings from admixture analysis (K = 5 and K = 6) showed no evidence of shared genomic ancestry between Pakistani goats and other goat populations from Asia. The results from genomic selection analysis revealed several candidate genes related to adaptation to tropical/hot climates (such as; KITLG, HSPB9, HSP70, HSPA12B, and HSPA12B) and milk production related-traits (such as IGFBP3, LPL, LEPR, TSHR, and ACACA) in Pakistani native goat breeds.ConclusionsThe results from this study shed light on the structural variation in the DNA of the three native Pakistani goat breeds. Several candidate genes were discovered for adaptation to tropical/hot climates, immune responses, and milk production traits. The identified genes could be exploited in goat breeding programs to select efficient breeds for tropical/hot climate regions.

Agastache Species (Lamiaceae) as a Valuable Source of Volatile Compounds: GC–MS Profiling and Investigation of In Vitro Antibacterial and Cytotoxic Activities

Nowadays, there is an increasing interest in the study of medicinal and aromatic plants, due to their therapeutic properties that correlate with the presence of different active compounds. Agastache species (sp.) are aromatic plants that belong to the Lamiaceae family, originating from North America and East Asia. The present study aimed to evaluate the composition of essential oils (EOs) obtained from different Romanian cultivated Agastache sp. and to investigate their antibacterial and cytotoxic activities. The gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS) screening revealed that menthone was the dominant constituent of A. foeniculum (31.58%), A. rugosa (39.60%) and A. rugosa ‘After Eight’ (39.76%) EOs, while estragole was the major constituent of A. foeniculum “Aromat de Buzău” (63.27%) and A. mexicana (41.66%) EOs. The investigation of the antiproliferative effect showed that A. rugosa and A. foeniculum “Aromat de Buzău” EOs had significant cytotoxic activity on MDA-MB-231 and HEPG2 tumour cell lines, with the most promising effect on the MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell line for A. foeniculum “Aromat de Buzău” EO (IC50 = 203.70 ± 0.24 μg/mL). Regarding the antibacterial activity, A. rugosa EO was most active against E. coli (8.91 ± 3.27 μL/mL) and S. aureus (10.80 ± 0.00 μL/mL). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on the cytotoxic effect of Agastache sp. EOs on MDA-MB-231, HCT116 and HEPG2 tumour cell lines. The results of our study provide new and promising information for the subsequent in vivo study of the pharmacological properties of Agastache sp. essential oils.

THE MONGOL EMPIRE AND KOREA: FROM WAR TO VASSALAGE

The purpose of the article is an in-depth analysis of the complex relationship between the Mongolian Empire and the Korean state from the period of military conflicts to the establishment of vassalage. The research is aimed at identifying the key factors determining the course and historical significance of these relations. The novelty of the study lies in an in-depth analysis of the numerous Mongol campaigns against Korea and the resistance of Korea. The main direction of the research is to study the impact of these events on the historical dynamics of the region and the development of society as a whole. Special attention is paid to the analysis of diplomatic and trade relations between the nomads of the Far East and Korea, as well as China's role in the fate of Korea as a traditional overlord. Despite the difficult times, the article emphasizes that Korea was able to maintain its autonomy and become a key hub on the Great Silk Road, which contributed to the development of handicraft production and increased its authority. The article represents an important contribution to historical science, enriching our understanding of the complex relationships in the Northeast Asian region. The practical significance of the article lies in the possibility of applying its results to a deeper analysis of modern geopolitical processes. The research methodology includes an analytical approach to data interpretation and a comparative analysis of historical events. The authors analyze the impact of the collapse of the clan system and the crisis of the central government on the military system of the Korean state, paying attention to changes in the mobilization system, which turned out to be one of the reasons for the deterioration of the political and social situation in the country. As a result of the research, the key factors determining the course of relations between the Mongolian Empire and the Korean state have been identified. The analysis allows us to conclude that these events are important for shaping the historical trajectory of both peoples and the region as a whole.

THE TAIWAN PROBLEM IN CHINA-USA RELATIONS

The China - Taiwan conflict is one of the most relevant and sensitive topics in China-US relations. Territorial conflict with Taiwan is one of the few issues that can potentially lead to escalation of tension between the United States and China. This article analyzes the China - Taiwan conflict in contemporary Chinese and American foreign policy. The historical conflicts between China and Taiwan from World War II to the present day are examined, showing the role of the United States in escalating the issue. The evolution of Sino-American relations in Northeast Asia in the 21st century and its impact on Taiwan is also explored.

Ancient genome of Empress Ashina reveals the Northeast Asian origin of Göktürk Khanate

Xiao‐Min Yang, Hai‐Liang Meng, Jian‐Lin Zhang, Yao Yu, Edward Allen, Zi‐Yang Xia, Kong‐Yang Zhu, Pan‐Xin Du, Xiao‐Ying Ren, Jian‐Xue Xiong, Xiao‐Yu Lu, Yi Ding, Sheng Han, Wei‐Peng Liu, Li Jin, Chuan‐Chao Wang, and Shao‐Qing Wen. Ancient genome of Empress Ashina reveals the Northeast Asian origin of Göktürk Khanate. – Journal of Systematic and Evolution. Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences. 2023. Volume 00 (0) 1-9.

Malaysia's Diplomatic Choices, Dynamics and Mechanisms Towards Northeast Asia - An Explanation Based on Neoclassical Realism

Regional diplomacy serves as a foreign policy tool utilized by states towards specific regions. However, the regional diplomacy of small states within a particular region in International Relations (IR) has often received less attention and scholarly scrutiny. Drawing from neoclassical realism, this paper introduces "security needs" at the systemic level and "interest preferences" at the unitary level as primary explanatory variables. The findings reveal three main models of regional diplomacy for small states: "active regional diplomacy," "preventive regional diplomacy," and "composite regional diplomacy." Small states employ various modes of regional diplomacy to attain diverse objectives in foreign development. Analysis of the 1.0 and 2.0 periods of Mahathir's administration illustrates Malaysia's adoption of "active regional diplomacy" and "composite regional diplomacy" in cultivating relations with Northeast Asian countries. This foreign policy implementation not only fosters Malaysia's effective cooperation with nations like Japan and South Korea but also maximizes the advantageous resources of Northeast Asian countries to bolster its own development. Additionally, it steers Malaysia clear of taking sides in the intense competition among major powers, expands diplomatic avenues, and bolsters its diplomatic initiative. However, in the post-Mahathir era, the deterioration of Malaysia's relations with North Korea and tensions with China have somewhat impacted the overall stability and harmony of Malaysia's relations with Northeast Asian countries.