North-central Mongolia Research Articles

Эртний нүүдэлчдийн дунд нарийн зохион байгуулалт бүрэлдэх үйл явцыг археологийн баримтаар тодруулах нь

The issue regarding social complexity among pastoral nomads has been a long-lasting puzzle for historian, anthropologists, and archaeologists. Such problems arises from the approach to look at past nomadic societies through narrow ecological and economic lenses. Even the concept of “social complexity” among archaeologists is problematic. Initially derived from system theories and political economy, the definition of social complexity places heavy emphasis on social stratification, industrialized economies, and centralized governance of sedentary societies. We argue that such approach to social complexity is not suitable to explain stages of social complexity among pastoral nomads. This is why we are introducing a different approach that considers integration, scale, and mobility. By explaining initial stages of social complexity of early pastoral communities in the case of two neighboring valleys in north central Mongolia, we can begin to understand how one of the first states in eastern Eurasian steppe emerged at the end of the 1st millennium BCE.

The reconstruction of Holocene northwestern Mongolian fire history based on high-resolution multi-site macro-charcoal analyses

In palaeoecology, multi-site macro-charcoal analyses provide information on climate–fire–vegetation linkages, their spatial and temporal extent, and the impact of prehistoric human practices. Our multi-site study comprises eight macro-charcoal records from two highly continental forest-steppe regions in western and north-central Mongolia, covering the Holocene. In addition to reviewing macro-charcoal influxes and comparing macro-charcoal morphotype results with arboreal/non-arboreal pollen ratios, our dataset provides the first fire frequency synthesis for two regions in Mongolia. During the early and mid-Holocene, the fire history in western and north-central Mongolia was controlled by the regional climate variability, whereas the fire intensities were higher in the Mongolian Altai. In general, fire frequencies are lower in northern Khangai. Increases in the fire frequency correlate with the potential beginning of a rise in the nomadic population of the Mongolian Altai after 1,100 cal yr BP. In both areas, individual macro-charcoal peaks, a marked site-to-site variability, and a generally very low impact on the forest-steppe distribution may mostly be explained by a strictly local nomadic disturbance.

Ground warming and permafrost degradation in various terrestrial ecosystems in northcentral Mongolia

AbstractTo detect the response of permafrost to climate change in various terrestrial ecosystems, we established a permafrost monitoring network in 2007, which includes eight boreholes to monitor ground temperatures in forest, meadow, steppe, moderately dry steppe, and wetland ecosystems and three Automatic Weather Stations (AWS) to monitor climatic factors, such as wind speed (Ws), air temperature (Ta), relative humidity (RH), precipitation (P), solar radiation (Rs), net radiation (Rn), soil heat flux (SHF), soil temperature (Ts), and soil water content (SWC), in forest, meadow, and steppe ecosystems in north‐central Mongolia. Major indicators, including mean annual ground temperature (MAGT), active layer thickness (ALT), and depth of zero annual amplitude (DZAA), were estimated to detect permafrost degradation. The results show that MAGT has increased by 0.00–0.02°C per year (almost no change) in the ice‐poor permafrost areas and by 0.03–0.06°C per year in the ice‐rich permafrost on pingos and wetlands. ALT showed an annual increase of −0.78 to 0.36 cm (almost no change) in the forest and meadow ecosystems and 2.3–7.2 cm in wetland ecosystems, whereas it increased by 23.0–28.9 cm per year in the steppe ecosystems over the last decade. This implies that the permafrost has degraded more rapidly in the steppe ecosystems than in other ecosystems. Based on correlation analysis, ALT is correlated to P in the meadow ecosystems and to SWC in the forest ecosystem, and MAGT is correlated to RH. However, both ALT and MAGT show a close correlation with major climatic factors, such as Ta, RH, SHF, and SWC in the steppe ecosystem. DZAA shows a close negative correlation with Ta in all ecosystems. These results provide evidence for permafrost degradation and its different responses to climate change in various terrestrial ecosystems.

Applicability of different vegetation indices for pasture biomass estimation in the north-central region of Mongolia

A dependable pasture biomass estimation is critical to prevent the pasture shortages for decision-makers at all levels in Mongolia. Remote sensing technology is expected to be capable of deriving such estimates. Therefore, in this study, we produced and compared linear regression models between above-ground pasture biomass and seven vegetation indices using close-range spectral measurements in the forest-steppe zone, which is one of six vegetation zones of Mongolia. The results indicated that the atmospherically resistant vegetation index (ARVI) (R2 = 0.62; p < 0.001) showed the highest fit with above-ground biomass in this particular landscape. The dominant perennial grasses in the sampled areas were Stipa krylovii Roshev. and Artemisia frigida Willd., which are commonly grazed in the summer and winter. Therefore, we concluded that the ARVI is the most suitable candidate for estimating pasture biomass in a landscape similar to that widely found in north-central Mongolia. This research will be applicable for pasture monitoring and natural resource studies in Mongolia.

Holocene high-resolution forest-steppe and environmental dynamics in the Tarvagatai Mountains, north-central Mongolia, over the last 9570 cal yr BP

The Tarvagatai Nuruu National Park, situated in the northern Khangai Mountains in central Mongolia, is dominated by a forest-steppe ecosystem. An extreme continental and semi-arid climate is characteristic for forest-steppe ecosystems in Central Asia and their vegetation is very sensitive to climatic changes and human impacts by pastoralism and tree-logging. In the selected study area, nowadays human impact is exceptionally low, and it has potentially also been in the past. The focus of this paper was to reconstruct vegetation variability, climate dynamics, intensity of human impact and fire dynamics by applying a broad multi-proxy approach on a lacustrine sediment core from a small closed lake in the study area. The analyses include reconstructions of pollen, spores, non-pollen palynomorphs, and charcoal distribution as well as XRF-scanning. Overall, the radiocarbon-dated lacustrine sediment core reveals stable, long-term environmental conditions since the early Holocene (9570 cal yr BP). Palynological results indicate that vegetation varies on a comparably low level. We assume that nomadic pastoralism played a tangential role on the vegetation changes in the study area. Higher values of coprophilous fungi between 9570 and 8350 cal yr BP suggest the highest wildlife activity during the early Holocene. Hence, our multi-proxy data reveal a surprisingly stable vegetation composition and only slight climatic changes in north-central Mongolia for the entire Holocene. An initial moist and warm period from 9570 to 4180 cal yr BP was followed by a period of slightly drier and potentially cooler conditions from 4180 until 430 cal yr BP. The latest period from 430 cal yr BP to present was moist and warm. Fires were in general relatively rare except from a strong phase of fire activity between 3550 and 2960 cal yr BP.

Khyadag and Zunii Gol: Animal Art and the Bronze to Iron Age Transition in Northern Mongolia

The Late Bronze Age Mongolian culture known for its memorial deer stones and khirigsuur burials, the Deer Stone-Khirigsuur complex (hereafter DSK) dating to 1300–700 BCE, displays persistence over several hundred years. Radiocarbon dates from hearths and horse remains associated with these sites show little change in architecture, ritual practice, and iconography, giving the impression of an unchanging mortuary cultural regime. New research demonstrates that deer stones are memorials to recently deceased leaders that display distinctive features of personal identification within the unifying framework of an over-arching religious theme represented by deer-bird iconography. Despite continuity, the DSK complex is not monolithic. This paper presents evidence for regional cultural and chronological variation in deer stone art and ceremonial activity based on research at the Khyadag and Zunii Gol sites in northcentral Mongolia. Areal excavation, detailed survey, and recording of deer stone art revealed the presence at Khyadag of a new class of miniature deer stones and evidence of copper smelting, and at Zunii Gol — an unusual khirigsuur associated with a deer stone carrying elements of Scytho-Saka animal style art. These data indicate geographic and chronological overlap in V. V. Volkov’s deer stone types and changes in deer stone art and khirigsuur ritual in the later period of the DSK complex. In the future, emphasis needs to be given to broad excavation strategies that explore the contextual history of individual DSK sites, dating of Volkov’s Type II and III deer stones, and regional comparisons with Xinjiang, Baikal, and the Mongolian and Gornyi Altai.

PGE-Cu-Ni Mineralization of Mafic-Ultramafic Massifs of the Khangai Upland, Western Mongolia

The mafic-ultramafic massifs with the PGE-Cu-Ni mineralization located in North-Central Mongolia: Oortsog, Dulaan, Mankhan, Yamat, and Nomgon were investigated. For the first time we consider these massifs as a single magmatic association and as fragments of Khangai batholith caused by the action of the plume responsible for the formation Permian Khangai LIP. The massifs fractionated from peridotite to gabbro have a similar typomorphic ore mineralogical and geochemical features, which change depending on the degrees of fractionation of magma and evolution of the sulfide melt. The least fractionated Oortsog massif originated from Ni-rich high-Mg basaltic magma. It is characterized by predominance of pyrrhotite mineralization due to exsolution of monosulfide solid solution (MSS). The most fractionated is the Nomgon massif originated from Cu-rich basaltic magma with bornite-chalcopyrite mineralization, formed as an exsolution of intermediate solid solution (ISS). The rest of the massifs have a medium characteristics between these two. The compositions of sulfides in the studied massifs change in accordance with the increase in sulfur fugacity from peridotite to gabbro: enrichment of pentlandite in Ni and pyrrhotite in S. The composition of PGM changes from Pt minerals in Oortsog massif to Pd minerals in Nomgon massif in the same direction. These massifs can be considered as potential for the PGE.

Early Jurassic Rare Metal Granitic Pluton of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt in North-Central Mongolia: Tungsten Mineralization, Geochronology, Petrogenesis and Tectonic Implications

The Tukhum granitic pluton is a part of the Mesozoic composite Khentei batholith of north-central Mongolia, which belongs the Central Asian Orogenic Belt. The shallow-seated pluton (~900 km2) is made up of two distinct biotite granite intrusions dated at ~ 191 and 183 Ma and hosts a tungsten deposit associated with the younger phase. Both intrusions are composed of ferroan A2- type granites, which are fractionated and silica-rich (> 71 wt.%). Their mantle-normalized plots are relatively enriched in Cs, Rb, U and Th and depleted in Ba, Sr, Eu, Nb and Ti. They have ƐNd(t) ranging from ~ 0 to +1 and Nd model ages ~ 650-900 Ma. The granites were derived by partial melting of a Neoproterozoic middle/lower crustal source of felsic/intermediate composition, followed by fractional crystallization. The younger intrusion also contains leucogranites with a trace element composition indicative of a combined crystal and fluid fractionation. The source of this younger intrusion was enriched in rare metals (W, Sn). The tungsten deposit is associated with the last stages of the evolution of the granitic magma. The origin of the pluton as well as the Khentei batholith is related to a mantle plume, which provided the heat triggering a crustal melting. The plume resulted in the eastward movement of large scale magmatism over time, from the Tarim traps (300-275 Ma) through the large Khangai magmatic centre (270-240 Ma) to the Khentei batholith (230-180 Ma) in north-central Mongolia.

Climate and wildfire effects on radial growth of Pinus sylvestris in the Khan Khentii Mountains, north-central Mongolia

The warming climate of recent decades has led to further aridity of the Mongolian landscape and has had major effects on forest growth and wildfire occurrence. Here, we investigated drought and wildfire effects on the growth of Pinus sylvestris along an ecologically diverse transect in semiarid north-central Mongolia using two separate subsets. Tree-ring width series of the first subset, represented by trees without fire scars, were clustered into three regional chronologies reflecting environmental differences of delineated geo-vegetation zones. Tree-ring growth reflected June drought signal at all three zones. The increasing radial growth trend was found in the dark taiga zone, likely supported by permafrost summer thawing, primarily caused by temperature increases. The second subset, represented by injured trees, showed that most wildfires occurred during the dormant season and in the forest-steppe zone; April–May drought conditions substantially contributed to triggering wildfires. Nevertheless, an increased frequency of wildfires in the study area was not observed, despite temperature increases since 1940. Our study highlights the significance of the effect of the ongoing temperature increase on north-central Mongolian pine forests, and, correspondingly, the need to conserve an endangered ecosystem of the dark taiga and to undertake afforestation activities in devastated pine forests.

Micro-Scale Iron Smelting in Early Iron Age to Mongol Period Steppe Communities of North-Central Mongolia and its Implications

Given the high level of technological sophistication involved in iron smelting, a common assumption held is that small mobile communities of the Mongolian steppe relied on trade with larger, settled, manufacturing centers for the acquisition of iron objects. Recent archaeological investigations in Mongolia suggest, however, that mobile pastoralist households and communities maintained a very active iron production industry. Although mounting evidence clearly points to the presence of household and community-based production, less is known about the level of technology employed by cottage industry scale manufacturers. In this paper we present the findings from excavations of mobile pastoralist dwellings and furnaces from sites in the Tarvagatai Valley of north-central Mongolia dating between 400 BC –AD 1300 that include a small assemblage of iron and iron-related objects bearing evidence of bloomery production. This material not only helps further substantiate that mobile communities in Mongolia had their own means of metal production but also indicates the innovative implementation of an existing technique at a scale previously deemed too small to be practical except in marginal steppe environments.

Pastoralist strategies and human mobility: oxygen (δ18Op) and strontium (87Sr/86Sr) isotopic analysis of early human remains from Egiin Gol and Baga Gazaryn Chuluu, Mongolia

The steppes of Central Asia have long been inhabited by communities practicing various forms of mobile pastoralism as their primary means of subsistence. This study explores the relationship between human mobility and organizational strategies at two distinct micro-regions situated within the modern-day borders of Mongolia. Our investigation was based on an analysis of oxygen (δ18Op) and strontium (87Sr/86Sr) isotopes in archeological human skeletal remains (n = 30) from Baga Gazaryn Chuluu, situated within the middle Gobi Desert and the Egiin Gol Valley in north-central Mongolia. The results indicate a marked degree of separation in local baseline values between the two regions, and corresponding variation was observed in the human skeletal samples. Intra-regional comparisons found that most individuals appear to have spent their childhood years within a “local” range for each particular region, with several notable exceptions that likely indicate a greater degree of lifetime mobility for certain individuals. Overall, the results support the probability that mobility patterns in the past were related to subsistence strategies developed within the discrete environmental zones that characterize the central regions of Mongolia.

内蒙古中北部大(暴)雪的分布及其与东亚冬季风关系

内蒙古中北部大(暴)雪的分布及其与东亚冬季风关系

Impacts of Aerosol Loading on Surface Precipitation from Deep Convective Systems over North Central Mongolia

The impacts of aerosol loading on surface precipitation from mid-latitude deep convective systems are examined using a bin microphysics model. For this, a precipitation case over north central Mongolia, which is a high-altitude inland region, on 21 August 2014 is simulated with aerosol number concentrations of 150, 300, 600, 1200, 2400, and 4800 cm−3. The surface precipitation amount slightly decreases with increasing aerosol number concentration in the range of 150–600 cm−3, while it notably increases in the range of 600–4800 cm−3 (22% increase with eightfold aerosol loading). We attempt to explain why the surface precipitation amount increases with increasing aerosol number concentration in the range of 600–4800 cm−3. A higher aerosol number concentration results in more drops of small sizes. More drops of small sizes grow through condensation while being transported upward and some of them freeze, thus increasing the mass content of ice crystals. The increased ice crystal mass content leads to an increase in the mass content of small-sized snow particles largely through deposition, and the increased mass content of small-sized snow particles leads to an increase in the mass content of large-sized snow particles largely through riming. In addition, more drops of small sizes increase the mass content of supercooled drops, which also leads to an increase in the mass content of large-sized snow particles through riming. The increased mass content of large-sized snow particles resulting from these pathways contributes to a larger surface precipitation amount through melting and collision-coalescence.

Mobile Domiciles of the Eurasian Steppe: Archaeological Evidence of Possible Dwelling Space during the Early Iron Age

ABSTRACTVery little precedent exists in Mongolia for excavating an ephemeral habitation site of prehistoric mobile pastoralists. This is due to an assumption that the kinds of nonpermanent structures constructed from perishable materials by mobile pastoralists (e.g., yurts) would be virtually undetectable in the archaeological record. Working in the Tarvagatai Valley of north-central Mongolia, the goal of the current research is to test the viability of methodological and analytical techniques used in the investigation of Palaeolithic hunter-gatherer habitations for the purpose of identifying a mobile pastoralist domicile of the Early Iron Age. The following study presents an overview of the methodology implemented during the excavation and the analysis used to identify what appear to be indications of one of the earliest mobile structures so far identified in the Mongolian steppe.

Lithics in the steppe landscape: An off-site spatial analysis of stone artefacts in the Khanuy Valley, Mongolia

Lithics are the most persistent archaeological material in many parts of the world. Accordingly, the study of lithics on a landscape scale is important for making interpretations of various traits of past human behaviour and cognizance. In this paper, we present an overview of the lithic finds located in the Khanuy Valley, north-central Mongolia. A lithic assemblage collected in the systematic surveys since 2004 presents material dating from the Palaeolithic to the Late Bronze Age. Based on the spatial distribution and landscape characteristics of the lithic find locations, interpretations of broad-scale diachronic changes in the land use and landscape cognizance are suggested. These form working hypotheses as a baseline for future inquiries into lithic technology, land use, and ways the prehistoric inhabitants comprehended and utilized their landscape in the Khanuy Valley and in the wider region.

Evaluation of an Improved Quasi‐stochastic Collection Model Through Precipitation Prediction Over North Central Mongolia

AbstractOne of the key components of bin microphysics schemes is the quasi‐stochastic collection equation that describes the collection process of cloud particles. The normal quasi‐stochastic model, hereafter the NQS model, assumes that the time step is infinitesimally small, so that a cloud particle can collide with other cloud particle only once within the time step. However, since the time step is finite, a cloud particle can collide with other cloud particle more than one time within the time step. Hence, the improved quasi‐stochastic model that realizes this approach, hereafter the IQS model, is physically more reasonable. This study provides the evaluation of the IQS model against the NQS model in precipitation prediction. For this, a precipitation event observed over north central Mongolia on 21 August 2014 is simulated using the Weather Research and Forecasting model with a detailed bin microphysics scheme. The surface precipitation amount is larger in the IQS model than in the NQS model, particularly over the strong precipitation region. The IQS model increases the mass contents of small drops and large drops due to multiple collisions. The increased large drops contribute to the increase in surface precipitation amount. The increased small drops are transported upward, which eventually leads to an increase in snow mass content. Deposition and riming in the IQS model occur more actively, further increasing snow mass content. The increased snow mass content also contributes to the increase in surface precipitation amount through melting.

Effects of grazing forms on seasonal body weight changes of sheep and goats in north-central Mongolia: a comparison of nomadic and sedentary grazing

Effects of grazing forms on seasonal body weight changes of sheep and goats in north-central Mongolia: a comparison of nomadic and sedentary grazing

The genus Diploneis Ehrenberg ex Cleve (Bacillariophyta) from Lake Hövsgöl, Mongolia

Lake Hövsgöl is an ancient lake situated in north-central Mongolia at the southern end of the Baikal Rift Zone. Throughout its limnological history, Lake Hövsgöl has developed an extraordinary diversity in different groups of organisms, such as fish and invertebrates. However, the one group that presumably holds the largest taxonomic diversity in the lake—the diatoms—has been largely overlooked. This study presents a detailed taxonomic overview of the genus Diploneis from Lake Hövsgöl as well as a few localities from the neighboring Arkhangai province. A total of 25 taxa were identified, five of which are new and potentially endemic. Alongside the endemic species, this study confirms the presence of several taxa recently described from other Mongolian lakes (e.g., Diploneis linearielliptica, Diploneis aff. heteromorphiforma and Diploneis cf. eximia), presumably peculiar for this mid-Asian region. A relatively high number of widespread species were identified in Lake Hövsgöl, commonly reported from Europe and elsewhere. Interestingly, a population of Diploneis praeclara that is morphologically closely related to populations from Neogene fossil deposits in Romania was also observed in Lake Hövsgöl. Detailed LM and SEM observations are provided, together with species descriptions and comparisons to morphologically related species. Greater knowledge of the genus Diploneis opens and guides the way towards better and more comprehensive approaches of uncovering biological diversity and biogeographical patterns on the Eurasian continent and among the ancient lakes.

Petrogenesis of the Triassic Bayan-Ulan alkaline granitic pluton in the North Gobi rift of central Mongolia: Implications for the evolution of Early Mesozoic granitoid magmatism in the Central Asian Orogenic Belt

The 221Ma Bayan-Ulan (BU) granitic pluton occurs in the North Gobi rift of central Mongolia which was superimposed on the Paleozoic Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB), an area characterized by voluminous juvenile crust. This large (>1000km2) pluton is part of an Early Mesozoic granitoid province in the central part of the CAOB. It consists mainly of alkali feldspar granites containing mesoperthite with interstitial quartz, minor Ca–Na and Na amphiboles and rare Fe-rich biotite. Graphic texture is common. The BU granites are fractionated, leucocratic, alkaline, A-type rocks that are enriched in incompatible elements, particularly Rb and Th and depleted in Ba, Sr, Eu and Ti. Most have ɛNd(T) values of +1.4 to +1.7 and TDM model ages ∼800 and 1200Ma, and lie within the range of other A-type granites of the CAOB granitoid province. The granites are interpreted to have formed by the partial melting of underplated, Neoproterozoic, mildly-alkaline basalts in the lower crust, followed by fractional crystallization dominated by feldspars. The formation of the BU pluton and the coeval Khentei batholith, the largest Late Triassic intrusion in north-central Mongolia, appears to be related either to a plume or to the closure of the Mongol–Okhotsk ocean. North Gobi rift magmatism extends across the Mongol–Okhotsk suture, so a plume-related origin is more consistent with available data. This plume, which would provide the heat source for magmatism in this area, explains the eastward movement of large scale magmatism over time, from the Tarim traps (300–275Ma), through Khangai (270–240Ma), to Khentei (230–195Ma) in central Mongolia.

Stable Isotopes Suggest Low Site Fidelity in Bar-headed Geese (Anser indicus) in Mongolia: Implications for Disease Transmission.

Population connectivity is an important consideration in studies of disease transmission and biological conservation, especially with regard to migratory species. Determining how and when different subpopulations intermingle during different phases of the annual cycle can help identify important geographical regions or features as targets for conservation efforts and can help inform our understanding of continental-scale disease transmission. In this study, stable isotopes of hydrogen and carbon in contour feathers were used to assess the degree of molt-site fidelity among Bar-headed Geese (Anser indicus) captured in north-central Mongolia. Samples were collected from actively molting Bar-headed Geese (n = 61), and some individual samples included both a newly grown feather (still in sheath) and an old, worn feather from the bird's previous molt (n = 21). Although there was no difference in mean hydrogen isotope ratios for the old and new feathers, the isotopic variance in old feathers was approximately three times higher than that of the new feathers, which suggests that these birds use different and geographically distant molting locations from year to year. To further test this conclusion, online data and modeling tools from the isoMAP website were used to generate probability landscapes for the origin of each feather. Likely molting locations were much more widespread for old feathers than for new feathers, which supports the prospect of low molt-site fidelity. This finding indicates that population connectivity would be greater than expected based on data from a single annual cycle, and that disease spread can be rapid even in areas like Mongolia where Bar-headed Geese generally breed in small isolated groups.