Normative Attitudes Research Articles

Experimental priming of peer injunctive norms and peer descriptive norms on personal alcohol attitudes, behaviors, and motivations

Purpose: Several theoretical frameworks postulate that perceptions about social normative information could modify personal attitudes and behavior. The current experiment applied priming methodology to activate the mental representations of peer injunctive norms (perceptions about the attitudinal approval of friends) and peer descriptive norms (perceptions about the behaviors of friends) for alcohol on personal alcohol attitudes, behaviors, and motivations. Materials and methods: Participants (N = 470) enrolled at a university in the United States were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: peer injunctive norms prime (n = 159), peer descriptive norms prime (n = 153), or control group (n = 158). Participants in the two priming conditions were exposed to a series of item stimuli designed to activate mental concepts about normative alcohol attitudes (peer injunctive norms) or normative alcohol behaviors (peer descriptive norms). The dependent variables were personal drinking attitudes, behaviors, conformity motives, social motives, coping motives, and enhancement motives. Results: Results indicated that participants primed with the peer injunctive norms or peer descriptive norms manipulations subsequently endorsed statistically higher mean scores on personal alcohol attitudes than the control group. The descriptive norms manipulation resulted in statistically higher endorsement of personal alcohol behaviors and conformity motives than the control group. Conclusions: These findings suggest that simple and subtle thought accessibility reminders about other people’s alcohol-related attitudes and behaviors might compel social normative effects. The research offers implications about the mechanism of operation for social normative peer pressure on drinking attitudes and behaviors in adolescents and young adults.

Healthy and Somewhat Wealthy: The Lived Experience of Successful Aging

Abstract The idea of being active, healthy, happy and independent as long as is possible is strongly promoted in public discourse and in aging policies. Starting from the idea of investigating the serious leisure practices of the elderly, I sought to develop a qualitative research that captures perceptions and normative attitudes regarding the perceived and lived experience of aging. The study offers insights into the socially constructed nature of successful aging, by critically exploring the relation between the practice of Tai-Chi, considered a serious leisure activity among older adults, and the neoliberal ideology. During my fieldwork I conducted 14 in-depth semi-structured interviews and I have analyzed a specific typology of subjects - ‘healthy and somewhat wealthy’ as one of the respondents described himself - motivated by the fact that this category of the elderly is much more likely to internalize and promote neoliberal ideology. The goal of my fieldwork research was to determine how seniors operationalize the concept of successful aging and what strategies they use in order to ensure their experience matches their expectations. I also chose to focus on the way elders embrace a serious leisure perspective, which promises to give them a sense of purpose and progress. As shown by the accounts of the participants in the study, the need to be active, independent, healthy, and cheerful determine individuals to work with their own self and seek to engage in serious leisure activities.

The Framing of "Alzheimer's Disease": Differences Between Scientific and Lay Literature and Their Ethical Implications.

Background and ObjectivesThe meaning of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is changing in research. It now refers to a pathophysiological process, regardless of whether clinical symptoms are present. In the lay literature, on the other hand, AD is understood as a form of dementia. This raises the question of whether researchers and the lay audience are still talking about the same thing. If not, how will these different understandings of AD shape perspectives on (societal) needs for people with AD?Research Design and MethodsWe use framing analysis to retrieve the understandings of the term AD that are upheld in the research literature and in national Dutch newspaper articles. We make explicit how the framings of AD steer our normative attitudes toward the disease.ResultsIn the analyzed research articles, AD is framed as a pathological cascade, reflected by biomarkers, starting in cognitively healthy people and ending, inevitably, in dementia. In the lay literature, AD is used as a synonym for dementia, and an AD diagnosis is understood as an incentive to enjoy “the time that is left.”Discussion and ImplicationsThe two different uses of the term AD in research and in the lay literature may result in misunderstandings, especially those research framings that falsely imply that people with AD biomarkers will inevitably develop dementia. Adoption of the research understanding of AD in clinical practice will have normative implications for our view on priority setting in health care. For example, it legitimizes biomarker testing in people without dementia as improving “diagnostic” certainty.

Descriptive Rules and Normativity

Abstract This work offers a challenge to the orthodox view that descriptive rules are non-normative and passive in their role and usage. It does so by arguing that, although lacking in normativity themselves, descriptive rules can be sources of normativity by way of the normative attitudes that can develop around them. That is, although descriptive rules typically depict how things are, they can also play a role in how things ought to be. In this way, the limited role that this type of rule can play as either a basis for the development of normative reasons, or as explanatory reasons for action is identified and clarified. One desirable outcome of the analysis is a more complete view of what descriptive rules are and how they are utilized by agents.

Predictors of health care practitioners’ normative attitudes and practices towards sexual and reproductive health and rights: a cross-sectional study of participants from low-income countries enrolled in a capacity-building program

ABSTRACT Background: Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights (SRHR) is a concept of human rights applied to sexuality and reproduction. Suboptimal access to SRHR services in many low-income countries results in poor health outcomes. Sustainable development goals (3.7 and 5.6) give a new impetus to the aspiration of universal access to high-quality SRHR services. Indispensable stakeholders in this process are healthcare practitioners who, through their actions or inactions, determine a population’s health choices. Often times, healthcare practitioners’ SRHR decisions are rooted in religious and cultural influences. We seek to understand whether religious and cultural influences differ significantly according to individuals’ characteristics and work environment. Objective: The purpose of this study was to examine the role of healthcare practitioners’ individual characteristics and their work environment in predicting normative SRHR attitudes and behaviours (practices). We hypothesized that religion and culture could be significant predictors of SRHR attitudes and practices. Methods: A quantitative cross-sectional study of 115 participants from ten low-income countries attending a capacity-building programme at Lund University Sweden was conducted. Linear regression models were used to assess for the predictive values of different individual characteristics and workplace environment factors for normative SRHR attitudes and SRHR practices. Results: Self-rated SRHR knowledge was the strongest predictor for both normative SRHR attitudes and normative SRHR practices. However, when adjusted for other individual characteristics, self-rated knowledge lost its significant association with SRHR practices, instead normative SRHR attitudes and active knowledge-seeking behaviour independently predicted normative SRHR practices. Contrary to our hypothesis, importance of religion or culture in an individual’s life was not correlated with the measured SRHR attitudes and practices. Conclusion: Healthcare practitioners’ cultural and religious beliefs, which are often depicted as barriers for implementing full coverage of SRHR services, seem to be modified by active knowledge-seeking behaviour and accumulated working experience with SRHR over time.

Концепція формування підприємницької культури майбутніх бакалаврів зі спеціальності «Фізична культура і спорт»

The article deals with the development of the author's concept of forming the entrepreneurial culture of future bachelors of physical culture and sports. The concept is formulated on the basis of L. Boltansky, E. Kjapello, L. Teveno ideas about entrepreneurship as an activity aimed at reaching an agreement; provisions of culturology about culture as an embodied experience of human coexistence; theory by D. Uznadze of social guidelines, as well as the provisions of M. Weber and F. Knight on the special mentality of entrepreneurs; provisions of management theory on the content of the management cycle; marketing methodology customer development; P. Bourdieu's ideas about the essence of social practice and lifestyle; the provisions of the cultural-historical theory of the development of the human psyche by L. Vygotsky on the essence of the internalization and exteriorization of the content of culture by man; provisions of A. Bandura social-cognitive theory about the mechanism of increase of human self-efficacy ;the theory of quasi-professional training, according to which the educational process should be based on the creation of situations close to the conditions of real work; humanistic pedagogy, according to which the formation of personal qualities and patterns of behavior is more effective in terms of free self-expression. The formation of entrepreneurial culture of future bachelors of physical culture and sports is defined as the activity of educational institutions, which is aimed at forming social and normative attitudes of students, forming certain personality traits, as well as forming stable characteristics of entrepreneurial lifestyle. The main provisions of the concept are: formation of students' entrepreneurial thinking during classroom and independent work; internalization of content and examples of effective entrepreneurial activity by students; integration in the logical-structural scheme of formation of business culture of innovative, marketing and managerial educational contexts; monitoring the effectiveness of the process of forming an entrepreneurial culture through the use of appropriate methods of knowledge assessment.

The Culture of Corruption across Generations: An Empirical Study of Bribery Attitudes and Behavior

Is culture a lasting driver of corruption? I study whether normative attitudes toward bribery persist through generational change. To disentangle cultural from institutional causes, I compare indiv...

Quasirealism as semantic dispensability

I argue that standard explanationist solutions to the problem of creeping minimalism are largely on the right track, but they fail to correctly specify the kind of explanation that is relevant to distinguishing realism from quasirealism. Quasirealism should not be distinguished from realism in terms of the explanations it gives of why a normative judgment—a normative sentence or attitude—has the semantic content that it has. Rather, it should be distinguished in terms of the explanations it offers of what the semantic content of a normative judgment is.

Melancholy either children of Polish Saturn

The article has a double task, considering the content of Mira Marcinуw’s book, which is important in two controversial topics: madness and its conditions on Poland and its societal psyche, in particular the specifics of Polish melancholy. The author’s views on the status of melancholy in culture and its unique position in public life are presented. The question is: does the melancholic doubt his life? A fairly justified hypothesis would be that the melancholic sees himself as a dead rather than a living body. The significance of the quoted book is that it raises troubling questions but doesn’t give easy answers. First of all, it becomes obvious an unclear – how to develop the epistemological history of melancholy, which is understood as a scientific idea that seeks coherence and adequacy of the medicine language while the political history of melancholy is interpreted as a symptom of this sociocultural context, in this case in relation to Poland. Science in this case creates or selects concepts, although it always systematizes them in a certain place and time. Secondly, it is not clear today how to distinguish the language of melancholy itself, which is the language element of the emergency state, from the language of medicine, which is a means of describing a certain medical disorder. Medicine to a greater extent than we might think refers to normality than to the problematic concept of health. Medicine, while managing human life, adopts a normative attitude, which does not amount to providing advice on how to live wisely, but allows to influence the physical and moral relations of citizens that connect them with society. Thirdly, it is argued that the very concept of melancholy remains dynamic and changeable. The proposed “erotic constellation of melancholy” shows that the subject of melancholy loses the ability to find new objects of love. This incapacity simultaneously leads a person to open nihilism, which is not only the “nothingness of the will” and the usual “will of nothingness”, but also the discovery of the nothingness of knowledge and the futility of the cognition process. The inability to find items worth loving is due to the difficulty of finding items worth the effort to know. Thus, the causes of melancholy go beyond the trivial case of loss and cover all resentments, rejections, failures, disappointments, including despair in the process of cognition. Melancholy brings the subject to ruin, so it is the limit of all medical knowledge, stating that there is no secret of «disorder» in clinical cognition, that there is no secret of madness, and that there is nothing but the study of madness itself. It turns out that madness is recognition of nothingness of the world.

Public sensitivity to cultural identity and regime type of trading partners: a survey experiment from Turkey and Greece

Given that sharing a democratic regime or culture increases the likelihood of bilateral trade flows between country dyads, this article investigates whether individuals are more likely to support preferential trade liberalization with other democracies and countries they perceive as culturally similar to the home country. Adopting experimental manipulation of the regime type and the cultural identity of the partner country on nationally representative survey data from two emerging market countries, Turkey and Greece, I demonstrate that while cultural affiliation does not condition individual attitudes, respondents in both samples display a highly significant preference for trade liberalization with a democratic country over an authoritarian one. Assessments based on respondents’ endorsement of postmaterialist values, international trade attitudes, and interpersonal trust reveal that while the democracy preference of Turkish respondents are likely affected by functional reasons, both functional and normative dynamics condition Greek attitudes.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (10.1057/s41304-020-00290-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

BIMBINGAN KELOMPOK DALAM MENGATASI STRES

Group guidance is one of the guidance techniques that seek to help individuals to achieve optimal development in accordance with the abilities of talents, interests, and values ​​that are adopted and implemented in group situations. Group guidance is intended to prevent problems arising in individuals and develop individual potential. The group guidance service has three functions First, the informative function, Second, the development function. Both of these functions for example, group guidance is carried out through the activity of the Home Room, while the third, preventive and creative functions, are used for the treatment of psychological problems such as psychodrama, or sociodrama for the treatment of problems or social conflicts. In this paper the group guidance service is one of the media oriented towards efforts to help individuals develop themselves in order to be more independent, be able to socialize well, be able to practice speaking, responding, giving other people's opinions, being able to work together, caring with others, fostering normative attitudes and behavior as well as other aspects, tolerance and in turn individuals can develop their own potential and can improve their personal communication behavior, and most importantly, learn to take the right decisions for themselves in order to achieve more future goals good.

Impact of Pharmaceutical Product Dynamics on Social Norms and Values: An Empirical Study from Bangkok-Thailand

This study has examined the relationship between the dynamics of pharmaceutical products and social norms and values in the region of Thailand. The data was collected through questionnaire with a sample respondents of 226. For the analysis purpose, descriptive, frequency distribution, and regression techniques were applied on the collected dataset. Demographic factors cover the gender, age, educational background, and income level. Meanwhile, pharmaceutical dynamics are covered through ten factors ranging from A to J as explained under variable portion. For dependent variables, three factors like normative belief, social norms and attitude were observed. Findings of the study show that from the dynamics of pharma products, significant influence on normative belief, social norms and attitudes was found. In terms of implication, this study is highly suggested to the pharmaceutical managers, key decision makers and other officials who are dealing with the social influence of the pharma products, specifically in Thailand. However, our study is limited in terms of regional implications, sample size, and application of advanced techniques like structural equation modelling. Future studies are highly recommended to cover these limitations for more understanding and better implications.

ECEP: historical corpora, historical phonology and historical pronouncing dictionaries

This article presents theEighteenth-Century English Phonology Database(ECEP) in the context of historical phonology and historical corpora. The eighteenth century witnessed the proliferation of works on elocution and orthoepy and yet the field lacks searchable digital sources comparable to those available in other disciplines like historical syntax or historical pragmatics. Because of this and for other reasons such as the difficulty in deciphering idiosyncratic notation systems in the original materials, there has been a certain disregard for the study of eighteenth-century phonological evidence. The ECEP database aims to redress this absence of research material by collecting data from eighteenth-century pronouncing dictionaries in the form of IPA transcriptions (c.1,600 different example words totallingc.17,600 transcriptions) and supplementary metadata, with a view to facilitating systematic analyses of phonological, chronological and geographic patterns, and also normative attitudes. The richness of the contents in ECEP will thus be of interest to phonologists, dialectologists and language variationists from the historical as well as the synchronic perspective, in that eighteenth-century orthoepists laid the ground for what became ‘Received Pronunciation’. Methodologically, the compilation of the ECEP database aims to contribute to the thriving field of corpus linguistics with a new research tool for the study of the history of English.

Mental Health Clinicians' Screening and Intervention Practices to Reduce Suicide Risk in Autistic Adolescents and Adults.

Autistic individuals experience elevated risk for suicide ideation, attempts, and deaths. Little is known about how clinicians assess risk or intervene with suicidal autistic individuals. We surveyed 121 clinicians about use of suicide prevention practices with autistic and non-autistic clients. Clinicians reported greater self-efficacy in screening for suicide risk among non-autistic clients (p = 0.01). There were no statistically significant differences in whether they used standardized screening measures or in their reported normative pressure or attitudes towards screening. Clinicians reported similar rates of use of Safety Planning, an evidence-based suicide-prevention strategy, across groups, but greater acceptability for non-autistic clients (p < 0.001). These findings have implications for strategies to increase clinicians' adoption of these tools for autistic individuals.

From institutionally embedded ‘serious’ to individualized ‘popular’: a report on values and attitudes in Estonian music criticism

ABSTRACTThis article examines the values and attitudes of Estonian music criticism in print publications. The findings suggest that state-subsidized publications are characterized by Romantic ideology, professionalism, and tradition, and cover almost exclusively classical music, whereas commercial publications review mostly popular music and adopt a more individualized, less normative attitude to music. While transnational studies have referred to the growing legitimation of the ‘popular’ in elite publications, the high–low discrimination evident in Estonian state-subsidized music journalism upholds the dominant cultural value hierarchy. This could be embedded in the institutional framework of Estonian music culture and its Soviet heritage.

Re-wiring Guilt: How Advancing Neuroscience Encourages Strategic Interventions Over Retributive Justice

The increasing visibility of neuroscience employed in legal contexts has rightfully prompted critical discourse regarding the boundaries of its utility. High profile debates include some extreme positions that either undermine the relevance of neuroscience or overstate its role in determining legal responsibility. Here we adopt a conciliatory attitude, reaffirming the current value of neuroscience in jurisprudence and addressing its role in shifting normative attitudes about culpability. Adopting a balanced perspective about the interaction between two dynamic fields (science and law) allows for more fruitful consideration of practical changes likely to improve the way we engage in legal decision-making. Neuroscience provides a useful platform for addressing nuanced and multifaceted deterministic factors promoting antisocial behavior. Ultimately, we suggest that shifting normative attitudes about culpability vis-à-vis advancing neuroscience are not likely to promote major changes in the way we assign legal responsibility. Rather, it helps us to shed our harshest retributivist instincts in favor of more pragmatic strategies for combating the most conspicuous patterns promoting mass incarceration and recidivism.

“Exchanging gin for gardening”: The Treatment of Female Inebriates in Duxhurst Farm Colony, 1895-1914

This article investigates the fears raised by female alcoholism and the legislation it led to in the late Victorian and Edwardian periods. It explores the interplay between gender and inebriety by focusing on Duxhurst, a farm colony for female inebriates founded in 1895 by Lady Isabella Somerset, a wealthy philanthropist, Temperance advocate and Christian socialist. The history of the colony reveals tensions between a traditional approach to excessive drinking and a more novel, medical angle. The cottages where inebriates lived were synonymous both with a socially-inclined utopian scheme and a rather conservative, normative attitude to womanhood and deviant femininity. This article will endeavour to address the pioneering methods employed at the colony as well as the praise and criticism it received, in order to determine how far the Duxhurst experiment represented a radical break with previous practice.

The influence of the acquisition of English as a foreign language on acceptability judgements in L1 Polish among young adults

ABSTRACT The article discusses the results of a study of L1 proofreading competence conducted among young adult native speakers of Polish who acquired English through formal education at school and university in Poland. Students with various levels of proficiency in English were asked to make acceptability judgements for Polish structures presented to them in writing. The results confirm the hypothesis that competence in L2 English exerts an influence on judgements of well-formedness of linguistic expressions in L1 Polish. Students with the strongest and weakest language skills in L2 English demonstrated significantly higher competence in detecting non-standard constructions in L1 Polish than students with intermediate L2 proficiency. The largest disparity appeared in the area of lexical semantics. A reinterpretation of the results of a similar study by Sunde and Kristoffersen. [2018. Effects of English L2 on Norwegian L1. Nordic Journal of Linguistics 41, no. 3: 275–307] conducted in Norway is proposed to explain the difference in the findings. The article proposes possible explanations for why strongest cross-lingual influence occurred in students who showed intermediate competence in English, and discusses the potential implications of the findings for language teaching on the one hand, and normative language attitudes on the other.

A Spirit of Trust: A Reading of Hegel's Phenomenology by Robert B. Brandom

Reviewed by: A Spirit of Trust: A Reading of Hegel's Phenomenology by Robert B. Brandom Rolf-Peter Horstmann Robert B. Brandom. A Spirit of Trust: A Reading of Hegel's Phenomenology. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2019. Pp. xiv + 836. Cloth, $45.00. In order to be successful in philosophy, you must have the right kind of followers. Ideally, they should be able to perform either or both of these tasks: (1) to translate your teachings into an idiom that is accessible to an audience coming from different intellectual backgrounds, and/or (2) to integrate your philosophical message into a contemporary discourse in such a way that it proves to be productively connectable to what is discussed there. Kant was lucky enough to have had such ideal followers in abundance, both as exegetical interpreters and as modernizers of his ideas. They stretch from the post-Kantian idealists via the Neo-Kantians to twentieth-century epistemologists, moral philosophers, and aesthetical theorists. The result is a very vivid presence of Kant's ideas throughout the (academic) world. The opposite is true with those post-Kantian philosophers who came to be labeled "German idealists." The major figures of this cluster (Fichte, Schelling, Hegel) had the bad luck either to have had few followers (as in Fichte's and Schelling's case) or (as in Hegel's case) to have been followed by a bunch of unconvincing disciples (e.g. Rosenkranz and Michelet), who were not sufficiently talented or prepared for the task of maintaining the philosophical legacy of their paragon in a different cultural climate. It was this unfortunate accident that can be partly blamed for the prejudiced reception of Hegel's, as well as Fichte's and Schelling's, doctrines on both sides of the Atlantic divide, denying them intellectual respectability and stigmatizing them as hopelessly obscure and not worth the trouble. This situation has changed considerably in the last seventy years, especially for Hegel's work, which draws new attention inspired by the scholarly efforts of people like Michael Theunissen, Dieter Henrich, Jean Hyppolite, Bernard Bourgeois, Franco Chiereghin, and Claudio Cesa on the Continental side, Charles Taylor, Michael Inwood, Robert Pippin, Terry Pinkard, and others on the English-speaking side. These persons have succeeded in initiating what could be called a new Hegel-renaissance. In particular, their efforts helped to lift the discussion of Hegel's work to a new level with respect to five important aspects: (1) exegetical transparency, (2) historical accuracy, (3) problem-awareness (Problembewusstsein), (4) intelligible reasoning, and (5) critical assessment. Robert Brandom's monumental book A Spirit of Trust: A Reading of Hegel's Phenomenology is a brilliant testament to what has been achieved so far, at least as far as Hegel's epistemology is concerned. Though it is literally a monument by virtue of its size, it also is a monument to what can or should be done with Hegel's philosophical œuvre in order to keep his way of thinking alive in a contemporary context. According to Brandom, Hegel's Phenomenology must be understood as "a story about the development of… higher-level concepts in terms of which his readers… can be brought to comprehend discursive activity in general" (103, cf. 636). He takes this story to be an allegorical presentation of a theory about the establishment of conceptual content. Consequently, he declares right at the beginning that "The defining subject that serves as both lens and filter for the present account is conceptual content" (2), where conceptual content, as it turns out, has to be understood as the result of our normative practices that consist in an intricate interplay between normative attitudes and statuses. Although this is admittedly not the most obvious characterization of Hegel's phenomenological project, it is fascinating to witness Brandom's success in presenting one of the most penetrating and illuminating readings of central parts of the Phenomenology to date, all while relying on his rather un-Hegelian framework. One cannot but deeply admire the virtues Brandom's work puts on display in an exemplary way. Among these, his profound familiarity with even the minutest details of (large parts of) Hegel's text, the vast knowledge of both historical and...

Introduction

Introduction Polly Galis, Maria Tomlinson, and Antonia Wimbush We need to be able to experience our diverse bodies—the varied ways we decorate and move them—as a source of taken-for-granted pleasure and celebration. Susie Orbach.1 Il faut parler. Fort, vite, n'importe comment. Il faut vaguer, oser le vague, respirer à la limite de nos poumons, germer multiples, indéfinies, flotter, errer, indéfinir nos vastes corps. Marie Cardinal.2 DURING THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY, our perceptions of others' bodies, and our relationship with our own bodies, have become increasingly defined by the media and technology. Consumers of traditional and online media can be bombarded daily with images of many different bodies. We gaze at the bodies in the media, and, in turn, we cast this gaze onto our own bodies. This self-reflection may engender feelings that can range from self-loathing to self-confidence. People of all gendered identities may feel pressured to transform their bodies to resemble models on the front cover of magazines or they may be inspired by an influencer on Instagram who encourages them to celebrate their body shape. Indeed, images and discourses in the media can both perpetuate and disrupt societal bodily norms. Social media, in particular, has become a platform through which people across the world have increasingly challenged normative societal attitudes towards the body. The media is thus one space in which our bodies are subject to a societal gaze that seeks to enforce certain expectations, norms, and values. This special issue examines a variety of corporeal representations—within both visual culture and literature—and explores how these works have, in turn, critically gazed back at society. Most relevant to the topic of this issue, we can find a variety of examples from within the francophone world that contest societal bodily norms. In France, various feminist blogs and social media accounts have sought to criticize the 'ideal' beauty standard of the thin woman that they observe in French society. For instance, the online magazine Paulette fills its pages with empowering images of women. It celebrates and foregrounds the bodies of black and minority ethnic women, plus size women, older women, and women with body hair. In this way, Paulette uses digital space to reject patriarchal expectations of beauty and to encourage women to gaze upon their [End Page 1] own bodies in a more positive way. Online campaigns that call into question bodily norms are also found in francophone contexts outside Europe. For example, in 2017, women across West Africa, including French-speaking Senegal and Cameroon, took to social media to protest a Nivea advert in which a black female model is using the product in order to gain "visibly whiter skin." Women responded by using the hashtag #pullitdownnow, highlighting how this discourse of whiteness is a product of colonialism. This movement thereby exposed that advertisements can perpetuate a neo-colonial gaze that valorizes whiteness and encourages black women to see themselves through this lens. The desire to resist societal bodily norms and expectations is not new to the Internet age. For centuries, consumers of cultural production have been subjected to idealized bodily images in paintings, and subsequently in photographs and films. These images have helped to cement normative patriarchal, western, and colonial ideologies about the body. The majority of these protests against these ideologies have been framed within a discourse of feminism. Women's challenge to the male and colonial gaze have appeared in spaces such as literature, street protests, and anti-colonial resistance. In Algeria, French colonialism sought to westernize Algerian women by unveiling them. Algerian women not only protested against colonialism by wearing the veil, even if they had not done so before, they also took an active part in the Algerian War of Independence (1954–1962). In France, second-wave feminists such as Julia Kristeva, Annie Leclerc, Marie Cardinal, and Hélène Cixous problematized negative patriarchal discourse about the female body such as that pertaining to menstruation, pregnancy, and the menopause. Their works on the body emerged in the aftermath of the May 1968 protests during which women took to the streets to campaign for greater bodily rights and autonomy. The Mouvement de...