Normal Diesel Research Articles

Transforming wastewater-derived algae biodiesel with ammonium hydroxide emulsion for enhanced energy efficiency and emission reduction

The growing demand for sustainable energy has prompted a search for alternative fuels, with microalgae-based biodiesel emerging as a promising option. However, improving its energy efficiency and minimizing environmental impacts remain key challenges. This study presents a novel approach by integrating wastewater-derived algae cultivation with ammonium hydroxide emulsion to enhance biodiesel performance. Chlorella vulgaris microalgae were grown in a medium of diluted human urine, where nutrient removal efficiency was evaluated, and biooil was extracted via solvent extraction. The resulting biodiesel was analyzed for elemental, chemical, and physicochemical properties. A 30 % blend of Chlorella vulgaris algae biodiesel (CVAB) with normal diesel fuel (NDF) was prepared. To further boost energy efficiency and emissions performance, ammonium hydroxide emulsion was added at concentrations of 5 % and 10 %. Results confirmed that wastewater-sourced algae cultivation is a viable method for sustainable biodiesel production. While CVAB's combustion characteristics were similar to NDF's, it exhibited a 7 % decrease in brake thermal efficiency and a 5 % increase in nitrogen oxide emissions. The addition of ammonium hydroxide emulsion notably improved both energy efficiency and emission profiles. This study highlights a breakthrough in using ammonium hydroxide emulsion to enhance algae biodiesel, making it a more competitive alternative to fossil fuels. Economically, this approach offers a dual advantage: utilizing low-cost wastewater for biodiesel production while improving fuel performance and reducing emissions.

Vibration and Noise of Diesel engine Using Calophyllum inophyllum Biodiesel and MoO3 nanoparticles: Experimental and machine learning study

The current study deals with the evaluation of vibrations and noise generated by a diesel engine powered by Calophyllum inophyllum biodiesel blend (B20) and molybdenum trioxide (MoO3) nanoparticles, predicted using machine learning algorithms. The nanoparticles were spread out in B20 at a level of 75 ppm, along with a surfactant and a dispersant to make sure they mixed evenly with the fuel samples. The stability of the nanoparticles was then tested using the principle of photo spectroscopy and it was found that the stability of nanoparticles to which surfactants and dispersants had been added was increased. The experiment with the diesel engine was carried out to evaluate the vibrations and noise by varying different loads (3, 6, 9, and 12 kgf) and injection pressures (200, 220, and 240 bar). The vibrations and noise intensity were reduced with B20 compared to normal diesel and a further reduction was observed by adding nanoparticles together with the dispersant. With increasing load, the RMS velocity and the RMS noise also increased, but these decreased with increasing injection pressure. The most favourable result for RMS velocity and RMS noise was B20+MoO3 75 ppm+ Dispersant 75ppm. At an injection pressure of 240 bar and a full load of 12 kgf, the RMS velocity was 0.568 m s-1 and 55.265 dB, which corresponds to an improvement of 28.76 % and 9.78 % respectively compared to conventional diesel for B20+MoO375ppm+ Dispersant 75ppm. Finally, the entire experimental data of 60 were predicted using various machine learning (ML) algorithms, such as Random Forest (RF), Decision Trees (DT), Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs), Support Vector Machines (SVM) and XG Boost and the predicted results correlated well with the experimental values. All algorithms have shown a good association, but XGBoost has shown a better correlation coefficient (R2). The R2 of each algorithm is in the range of 0.94–0.99, the MRE and RSME are also in the significant range for both RMS velocity and RMS noise.

An Energy, and Emission Assessment of Diesel Engines Powered with Shorea Robusta Biodiesel and Blends

The present investigation examines the exergy, energy, and pollutants of a diesel-powered engine fuelled with a blend of Shorea Robusta Biodiesel (SRB) and normal diesel. The impact of engine power, speed, and fuel mix on emissions and operating characteristics are investigated. The use of blended fuels including SRB reduces a number of performance metrics, including BTE, exergy efficiency, and the sustainability index. Furthermore, CO (carbon monoxide), smoke, and HC (hydrocarbon) emissions are reduced when compared to utilising pure diesel fuel. SRB20 has the lowest HC emissions among the mixes SRB. At an engine speed of 1500 rpm and a power output of 5.5kW, SRB10, SRB20, and SRB30 blends lower HC emissions by 8.92%, 10.71%, and 7.14%, respectively. Similarly, when compared to conventional diesel fuel, SRB10, SRB20, and SRB30 blends reduce CO emissions by 1.25%, 5%, and 6.25%, respectively.

Low-condensation diesel use contributes to winter haze in cold regions of China

The application of low-condensation diesel in cold regions with extremely low ambient temperatures (−14 to −29 °C) has enabled the operation of diesel vehicles. Still, it may contribute to heavy haze pollution in cold regions during winter. Here we examine pollutant emissions from low-condensation diesel in China. We measure the emissions of elemental carbon (EC), organic carbon (OC), and elements, including heavy metals such as arsenic (As). Our results show that low-condensation diesel increased EC and OC emissions by 2.5 and 2.6 times compared to normal diesel fuel, respectively. Indicators of vehicular sources, including EC, As, lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), and manganese (Mn), increased by approximately 20.2–162.5% when using low-condensation diesel. Seasonal variation of vehicular source indicators, observed at road site ambient environments revealed the enhancement of PM2.5 pollution by the application of low-condensation diesel in winter. These findings suggest that −35# diesel, a low-cetane index diesel, may enhance air pollution in winter, according to a dynamometer test conducted in laboratory. It raises questions about whether higher emissions are released if −35# diesel is applied to running vehicles in real-world cold ambient environments.

Development of Sustainable Biofuel from Seed Waste Using Pyrolysis and Its Sustainability in the Compression Ignition Engine Application

In recent decades, conventional diesel engines have faced serious challenges due to the depletion of fossil fuel sources. The current research investigates the feasibility of using waste Acacia nilotica (AN) seed pyrolysis oil as fuel in diesel engines. The pyrolysis investigations were carried out in a batch-type reactor at temperatures ranging from 400 °C to 650 °C, a heating rate of 10 °C/min, and feedstock sizes ranging from 0.2 to 1.7 mm. The maximum oil yield of 49% was obtained at 500 °C with an optimum particle size of 0.5 mm. The characterization of bio-oil was estimated with the help of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1HNMR), and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis. FTIR analysis detected aliphatic functional groups in bio-oil. GC-MS analysis determined phenolic, acetic, and cresol compounds in pyrolysis oil. Bio-oil contains 64.78% aliphatic hydrocarbons (HC), according to 1HNMR. Blends of AN and diesel were studied in diesel engines to investigate engine parameters, and the findings were compared to standard diesel. Under full load conditions, the efficiency of the AN10 (10% AN seed pyrolysis oil + 90% diesel) blend was discovered to be 32.8%, which is 2.3% lower than normal diesel, and oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and smoke emissions were low. The findings confirmed that up to 30% of the AN blend can substitute for diesel in compression ignition (CI) engine applications.

Bio-fuel production from hydroconversion of hexadecane over Pt/SAPO-11 catalysts

The hydroconversion of normal renewable diesel fractions appears as a pivotal process in the production of bio-fuel derived from lipids. The adaptability of bio-fuel product distribution to align with market demand necessitates the utilization of catalysts with superior performance in long-chain alkane hydroconversion. The hydroconversion performance of the model compound hexadecane over Pt/SAPO-11 catalysts was comprehensively investigated. The accessibility α of B acidity in Pt/SAPO-11 catalysts was determined using Py and DMPy-IR, and its impact on hexadecane hydroconversion was addressed. This study revealed that the shape selectivity mechanism in long-chain alkane hydroconversion on Pt/SAPO-11 catalysts involves the combination of the transition state and product shape selectivity catalysis. Pt/SAPO-11-S1, with the largest accessibility factor α, reached unprecedented maximum yield levels of 68 %, 87 %, and 37 % for multibranched C16H34 isomers, total C16H34 isomers, and jet fuel fractions, respectively. Additionally, Pt/SAPO-11-S1 exhibited excellent performance for isomerization and jet fuel production in actual renewable diesel hydroconversion. It demonstrates the potential of Pt/SAPO-11 catalysts featuring accessible B acidity in renewable diesel hydroconversion.

Exergetic performance optimization and thermoeconomic analysis of a variable compression ratio diesel engine fueled with distilled plastic oil and diesel doped with nanographene

Due to the fast depletion of fossil fuels, enormous concerns about environmental pollution, and advocacy for waste-to-energy drives from the global perspective, compression ignition engines need a sustainable alternative fuel source. Enormous plastic wastes were generated in health sectors, particularly during post-pandemic. In this context, the study intends to introduce a reasonable solution for such waste plastics recycling by converting them into liquid oil by pyrolysis followed by the distillation process. Distilled waste plastic oil (DPO) extracted from medical plastic waste is a potential alternative diesel source. The performance of the engine significantly increases when nanographene is added with DPO/diesel blends, which act as a combustion improviser. The energy efficiency (η1), exergy efficiency (η2), and brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC), which are regarded as key performance indicators, exhibited promising results when operated with 20% DPO +100 ppm nanographene (20DPO100G) emulsified fuel mixture as compared to normal diesel. When compared to diesel and other fuel combinations, the energy efficiency (η1) and exergy efficiency (η2) for 20DPO100G fuel mixture were found enhanced by 5.78% and 10.9%, respectively, and lowest by 14.7% for BSFC in comparison to diesel. The optimum energy efficiency, exergy efficiency, and minimum BSFC were obtained for the test engine from response surface methodology multi-objective optimization analysis as 31.44%, 22.12%, and 0.32 kg/kW-hr, respectively, for the composite desirability, D of 0.974. The 100 ppm nanographene emulsified distilled waste plastic pyrolysis oil and diesel blend has the lowest relative cost variation of −14.583.

Effect of fuel injection pressure on the performances of a CI engine using water-emulsified diesel (WED) as a fuel

BackgroundThe choice of energy sources is essential for sustainable development to combat different environmental issues caused by the consumption of fossil fuels. Though diesel engines are considered more efficient and reliable than other internal combustion engines, they emit different harmful pollutants which are detrimental to human health and the environment. Researchers are trying to find suitable alternative fuels for diesel engines with lower pollutant emissions and without much compromise in the efficiency of the engine. In this regard, water-emulsified diesel (WED) may be considered to be one of the most suitable alternative fuels. It is expected that the entire world will use electric vehicles in the long term. However, the complete replacement of IC engines in the near future is not feasible. In fact, different European countries have targeted to ban the use of diesel engine cars before the middle of the twenty-first century. Prior to that date, hybrid vehicles will be more popular and diesel engines will continue to play an important role. Hence, research involving improvements in diesel-operated IC engines is still relevant.MethodsAn experimental investigation was carried out using WED containing 10% water by volume as a fuel in a diesel engine at four different fuel injection pressures. The WED was prepared using an ultrasonicator.ResultsWith the increase of injection pressure, peak net heat release rate and in-cylinder pressure are found to have increased. Brake thermal efficiency is also found to have improved at higher injection pressure. The maximum efficiency was recorded when a WED at 210 bar of injection pressure is used, and it is about 3.3% higher than the maximum efficiency achieved when using normal diesel at the same pressure of fuel injection. At a higher load, neat brake-specific fuel consumption is found to be less compared to neat diesel, when only the amount of diesel contained in the emulsion as a fuel is considered. Maximum reduction in both NOx and smoke emission by using WED is recorded at 210 bar, and the average reductions are determined to be 32.6% and 51.9%, respectively.ConclusionsWED can be used as an alternative fuel for existing diesel engines without any retrofitting and with significant reduction in the emissions of pollutants compared to normal diesel fuel. It can also be concluded that at higher injection pressure, the combustion, performance and emission characteristics of compression ignition engines are improved when using emulsified diesel.

Exergy, energy, and emissions analyses of binary and ternary blends of seed waste biodiesel of tomato, papaya, and apricot in a diesel engine

• Binary and Ternary Blends of Biodiesel have been tested through IDI–CI Engine to serve as future renewable energy. • Exergy, Energy, and Emissions Were Analyzed at different Engine Work Conditions. • The Binary Blends of Biodiesel Significantly Decrease the Percentage of Heat Loss Exergy. • The Ternary Blends of Biodiesel Drastically Decrease the Heat Transfer Energy Loss. • TAPD Considerably Reduces CO Emissions. Biodiesel is considered as a renewable biofuel-based substitute for fossil diesel as the properties of biodiesel are similar to those of normal diesel fuel. However, biodiesel has some properties which a negative effect on engine combustion. Binary and ternary fuel blends (blends of biodiesels with the opposite properties) are the best environmentally friendly alternative in compression ignition engines. In this paper, the effects of binary and ternary blends of tomato, papaya, and apricot seed biodiesels on the energy and exergy balance as well as emissions on a compression ignition diesel engine were experimentally and theoretically investigated. The obtained results reveal that the maximum and minimum exergy efficiency are related to the biodiesel of tomato-papaya blend at about 29.63% and pure diesel at about 28.46% respectively. Also, the obtained results show that, compared to the tomato biodiesel-diesel blend, using the binary blends decreases the percentage of heat loss exergy by 5.5% and 3.3% on average for tomato-papaya biodiesel -diesel and tomato-apricot biodiesel-diesel, respectively. The results address that the energy percentage of exhaust emissions at the speed of maximum torque and maximum power averaged 30% while this fraction for exergy was about 13%. The emission results show that the minimum oxygen monoxide emissions, which is 0.3% less than that of diesel, is related to the tomato-apricot-papaya biodiesel-diesel ternary blend.

Real-Time PM2.5 Monitoring in a Diesel Generator Workshop Using Low-Cost Sensors

Particulates from diesel generator operation are a known air pollutant with adverse health effects. In this study, we used low-cost particulate matter (PM) sensors to monitor PM2.5 in a diesel generator plant. We compared the measurement results from a PM sensor and a reference instrument (DustTrak), and we found a high correlation between them. The data overestimation or underestimation of PM sensors implied the need for data calibration. Hence, we proposed a data calibration algorithm based on a nonlinear support vector machines(SVM )model, and we investigated the effect of three calibration factors on the model: humidity, temperature, and total volatile organic compounds (TVOC). It was found that the TVOC correction coefficient has great influence on the model, which should be considered when calibrating the low-cost PM sensor in diesel generator operation sites. A monitoring network with six low-cost sensors was installed in the diesel generator plant to monitor PM2.5 concentration. It was found that normal diesel generator work, diesel generator set handling work, and human activity are the most dominant ways of producing particulate matter at the site, and dispersion is the main cause of increased PM2.5 concentrations in nonworking areas. In this study, PM2.5 emissions from two different diesel generators were tested, and PM2.5 concentrations at monitoring points reached 220 μg/m3 and 120 μg/m3, respectively. This further confirms that diesel generators produce many respirable particles when working.

Experimental studies on premixed charge and reactivity-controlled compression ignition combustion modes using gasoline/diesel fuel combination

Homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) is a promising technology to reduce NOx and soot emissions in compression ignition (CI) engines. However, this technology lacks combustion control to circumvent the knocking and misfire limitations. Premixed charge compression ignition (PCCI) and reactivity-controlled compression ignition (RCCI) are techniques that use partial homogeneous charge to reduce NOx and soot emissions. Here, combustion is regulated either by controlling the injection timing or fuel reactivity. PCCI uses a part of fuel as premixed to form a partially homogeneous charge and the rest as direct-injected. RCCI, on the other hand, uses a low reactive fuel (LRF) for port injection to form a partially homogeneous charge and a high reactive fuel (HRF) for direct injection. In this work, we studied PCCI and RCCI modes using commercially available fuels like diesel and gasoline, and we compared the results with diesel baseline operation. Adding 40% (by weight) heated diesel port injection to normal diesel operation in PCCI mode at different loads showed a minimum reduction in NOx and smoke emissions by 15% and 6%, respectively, when compared with diesel baseline. This mode was found to be equally efficient with diesel baseline operation at low torque conditions. Similarly, adding 40% (by weight) of gasoline port injection to normal diesel operation in RCCI mode at different loads showed a minimum reduction in NOx and smoke emissions by 20% and 14%, respectively, when compared with diesel baseline. This mode was found to be equally efficient with diesel baseline operation at high torque conditions.

Effects of high cetane diesel on combustion, performance, and emissions of heavy-duty diesel engine.

Fuel economy improvement and reducing exhaust emissions are drivers for advancement in engine technology and fuel quality enhancement. The latest generation diesel engine uses a high pressure common rail fuel injection system and after-treatment devices such as selective catalyst reduction (SCR) and diesel particulate filters (DPF) to meet the stringent emission norms. The performance of engine can be further improved by using better quality fuel than the minimum requirement. Fuel quality improvement can be achieved through modifying blending components and/ or using additives. This study investigates the effect of high cetane diesel on the performance and emission behavior of SCR fitted heavy-duty engines. Normal diesel is doped with diesel multi-functional additives containing cetane improver, and thereby cetane number enhanced to 55 from 52. Fuel consumption and exhaust emission were evaluated over the European stationary cycle (ESC) under the controlled test cell conditions. The fuel consumption with the high cetane diesel was 0.5% lower; CO, HC, and NOx emissions were lower by 12%, 6%, and 8% respectively over the ESC. This paper also highlights mode-wise engine performance, emissions, noise, and combustion behavior of the engine while using a cetane improver in diesel over the ESC cycle. Noise level reduced by 1dB in the wide-open throttle performance tests when the cetane number increased by 3 units.

Energy, environmental and economic assessment of waste-derived lemon peel oil intermingled with high intense water and cetane improver

Waste-to-energy and its utilization in the commercial field have received wider attention in recent years. Lemon peel oil (LPO), a food waste by-product is used for this study to produce bioenergy, and a novel approach has been attempted to improve energy and environmental efficiency. The LPO was blended with different percentages of water and 2-Ethylhexyl nitrate (EHN) and the energy, environmental and economic assessments were carried out. The outcomes show that LPO dominates the normal diesel in all aspects, except for NOx emission, and 10% of water in LPO (10WLPO) improves the overall performance. Meanwhile, this trend is reversed for 20% water in LPO (20WLPO) due to a longer ignition delay period and low cetane numbers. EHN plays a vital role in fuel modification and EHN blended 20WLPO significantly improves the engine characteristics, and the engine behavior is identical to 10WLPO. The cost-benefit analysis shows that 10WLPO fuel significantly reduces the running cost compared to LPO, and the cost is further reduced to 12% while the LPO is blended with EHN.

Experimental Study on the Performances of a Diesel Engine using Emulsified Diesel at Various Fuel Injection Pressur

Emulsified diesel has been used in a diesel engine at four different fuel injection pressures, i.e., 160 bar, 190 bar, 210 bar and 250 bar to investigate performance as well as emission characteristics of the engine. Brake thermal efficiency is noted to be improved at higher injection pressure and the maximum efficiency is recorded at injection pressure of 210 bar using emulsified diesel which is 3.3% more than that noted using normal diesel. At higher engine load, the neat BSFC considering only the quantity of diesel fuel present in the emulsion is found to be less compared to neat diesel. The emission measure of NOx and smoke are recorded to reduce at higher fuel injection pressure.

Conversion of palm oil sludge to biodiesel using sulphuric acid as catalyst

The present study focuses on utilizing palm oil sludge (POS) as low-cost feed stock for biodiesel production. The esterification reaction was performed by varying sulphuric acid dosage (2–5% wt), methanol to palm oil sludge molar ratio (3.5:1–9.5:1), reaction time (30–120 min), temperature 60 C and stirred speed 400 rpm. The free fatty acids (FFA) considerably reduced from 17.76% to 1.34% and maximum esters yield was observed to be 91.56% at optimal conditions, 4 wt % H2SO4, methanol to palm oil sludge ratio 7.5:1 and 60 min. The biodiesel was produced by transesterification process by varying sodium hydroxide catalyst concentration from 0.25 to 1.5 wt%. The maximum biodiesel yield of 92.2% was obtained at 0.25 wt% of NaOH. The biodiesel was tested for the fuel properties as per the IS 1448 protocol and compared with normal diesel fuel with reference to ASTM D6751 standards.

Characteristics of a CRDI Engine Fuelled by Waste Transformer Oil with High Fuel Injection Pressure

The impact of fuel injection pressure on the characteristics of the CRDI Diesel Injection system powered by Transesterified Waste Transformer Oil (TWTO) is investigated in this study. It was discovered in a previous experimental study that when transesterified waste transformer oil is utilised as a fuel in a normal diesel engine, the brake thermal efficiency (BTE) is dwindled because of the combustion characteristics of TWTO and its blends. TWTO25 blends shows comparable results to that of convention diesel fuel and higher blends exhibited lower characteristics with standard operational parameters due to their higher viscosity. In light of this, experimental research was conducted in the current study to improve the performance of TWTO25 blend in diesel engines with high fuel injection pressure. The fuel injection pressure is varied from 22MPa to 88MPa to achieve better atomization which intern increases the engine performance. Peak fuel injection pressure exhibits an improvement in brake thermal efficiency of 6.67% compared with neat diesel. In terms of emission attributes, the CO, HC and smoke level continuously tumble down with an upsurge in fuel injection pressure due to the well-atomized spray.

Investigations into the Combined Effect of Mahua Biodiesel Blends and Biogas in a Dual Fuel Engine

Rapid depletion of conventional fuel sources has led to the use of alternative fuels and implementation of variant engine technologies to reduce deleterious emissions being released and deliver thermal energy for numerous applications. This research aims to study the usage of mahua methyl ester in a single-cylinder 4-stroke CI engine, optimized to operate in the dual fuel mode. Performance, combustion and emission characteristics are recorded and compared with diesel with the sole aim of finding the blend that provides adequate performance and diminishing emissions. To this effect, the percentage of mahua biodiesel blend, load, biogas flow rate and methane fraction are varied. The experimentation is conducted using three mahua biodiesel blend variants namely B10, B20 and B30. Gaseous fuel comprising biogas (CH4 and CO2 in ratio of 3:2) and methane (CH4) are incorporated in the dual fuel condition at 8 litre per minute (lpm) and 12 lpm. B20 blend demonstrated better performance and emission characteristics. The addition of biodiesel (B20) showed more than 5% improvement in brake thermal efficiency. Additionally, comparing with normal diesel mode, B20 showed lower CO (0.061%) and NOx (615 ppm) emissions. In the dual fuel condition, methane and biogas are effective in reducing the NOx emissions, but with a negative repercussion of extortionately elevated HC and CO emissions. The best combination is deduced to be B20 mahua biodiesel at 8 lpm of biogas flow rate in the dual fuel mode due to better performance and emission characteristics.

Analysis of optimising injection parameters and EGR for DICI engine performance powered by lemongrass oil using Box–Behnken (RSM) modelling

The current study focuses on determining the optimum injection parameters and EGR using the RSM technique’s Box–Behnken approach. Neat lemongrass oil (LGO)/diesel blend is used in direct injection diesel engines. Based on the comprehensive analysis, optimisation was performed to establish the optimal injection pressure, timing, and EGR. The injection parameters must be optimised and EGR technique to decrease NOx emission and maximise BTE without much effect on BSFC and other emissions. The actual experimentation outcomes and the R 2 values that reveal the correlation between the results of optimisations and actual tests were found in good agreement. The optimum injection pressure, timing and EGR were found as 250 bar, 26°bTDC and 8.12% respectively. From the investigational results, the BTE was improved by 6.61% while BSFC decreased by 3.01% than normal diesel fuel operation. Furthermore, CO, HC, NOx and Smoke decreased by 23.65%, 21.20%, 32.85% and 27.73% respectively compared to diesel.

Experimental investigation on single cylinder four-stroke diesel engine with copper oxide nano-additives using tomato seed oil

The purpose of this project was to do research on a single-cylinder, four-stroke diesel engine that ran on biodiesel mixtures with nano additives. The diesel–biodiesel mixes are treated with varying concentrations of nano copper oxide (CuO). The flash point, fire point, and calorific value are all properties of the material. This fuel was discovered to boost the performance and lower emissions of a single-cylinder, four-stroke diesel engine. In this work, copper oxide (CuO) is used as a nano additive in the form of copper oxide, with tomato seed oil as the base oil (biodiesel) (CuO). The copper oxide (CuO) nano additives with a diameter of 50 nm were manufactured using a variety of tomato seed oil methyl esters and then blended in varied amounts with pure diesel fuel. Throughout the study, a modified single-cylinder 4-stroke diesel engine was evaluated to determine whether it could lower its specific fuel consumption, brake thermal efficiency (BTE), air–fuel ratio (AFR), exhaust gas temperature (EGT), NOx emissions, and hydrocarbons (HC) emissions, carbon monoxide (CO). When compared to normal diesel fuel, researchers discovered lower fuel consumption, improved performance, and lower emissions of hydrocarbons (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO), but greater emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx).

Biofuel production over Fischer-Tropsch synthesis: effect of Fe-Co/meso-HZSM-5 catalyst weight on product composition and process conversion

Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis (FTS) using Fe-Co/meso-HZSM-5 catalyst has been investigated. The impregnated iron and cobalt on HZSM-5 could be used as bifunction catalyst which combined polimerizing synthesis gas and long hydrocarbon cracking for making biofuel (saturated C5–C25 hydrocarbons as gasoline, kerosene and diesel oil). The study emphasized the effect of catalyst weight on product composition and process conversion. The HZSM-5, had been converted from ammonium ZSM-5 through calcination, and then desilicated with NaOH solution. The Co(NO3)2.6H2O and Fe(NO3)3.9H2O were used as precursor for incipient wetness impregnation (IWI) on amorphous meso-HZSM-5. The catalyst consisted of 10 % Fe and 90 % Co by weight, called 10Fe-90Co/meso-HZSM-5. All catalysts were reduced in situ in the continuous reactor with flowing hydrogen at 25 mL/min, 1 bar, 400 °C for 10 hours. The catalyst performance was observed in the same continuous fixed bed reactor at 25 mL/min synthesis gas (30 % CO, 60 % H2, 10 % N2), 250 °C, 20 bar for 96 hours. Various catalyst weight (1, 1.2, 1.4, 1.6 gram) were applied in FTS. The desilicated HZSM-5 properties (BET analysis) were 6.1–29.9 nm mesoporous diameter, 0.3496 cc/g average mesoporous volume, 526.035 cc/g pore surface area, and the EDX analysis gave 22.1059 Si/Al ratio and 16.11 % loading (by weight) on meso-HZSM-5. The reduced catalyst showed the XRD spectra of Fe (66°), Fe-Co alloy (44.50°) and Co3O4 (36.80°). The reaction using 1 gram of 10Fe-90Co/meso-HZSM-5 catalyst produced the largest composition and conversion. The 1 gram catalyst gave the largest normal selectivity of gasoline (19.15 %) and kerosene (55.18 %). While the largest normal diesel oil selectivity (24.17 %) was obtained from 1.4 gram of catalyst. The CO conversion per gram of catalyst showed similar value (CO conversion of 26–28 %) for all catalyst weight