Nonviolent Offenders Research Articles

New Jersey advances bill that would keep people with MI out of court system

New Jersey legislators advanced a bill last month that would divert nonviolent criminal offenders from the court system into community‐based mental health treatment, the New Jersey Monitor reported on Sept. 30. Supporters say more than one quarter of people now incarcerated have mental health disorders. Connecting them with medical treatment instead of jailing them would save the state money while also reducing recidivism by better addressing their needs, said Adam Sagot, a psychiatrist with Hackensack Meridian Health. “We are in an epidemic of mental health crises,” said Sagot, testifying in support of the bill before the New Jersey state Assembly's judiciary committee. “Anything we can do right now to start providing treatment to those individuals on as broad a scope as possible is in everyone's best interest,” he said. Assemblyman Robert Auth (R‐Bergen) said the state should first “test the waters” in a few counties to gauge whether such a concept would work before mandating it statewide. He also said he worried about not confining people “who may be borderline not quite there … and some other innocent victim gets killed or molested or whatever.” But Assemblyman Raj Mukherji (D‐Hudson), who chairs the committee and sponsored the bill with Assemblywoman Annette Quijano (D‐Union), said only people with diagnosed or suspected mental illnesses who commit nonviolent disorderly persons offenses or third‐ or fourth‐degree crimes would be referred for diversion.

Control Issues: Examining the Relationship between Low Self-Control and Intimate Partner Violence for both Perpetrators and Victims

Gottfredson and Hirschi’s (1990) low self-control theory is linked to individual-level non-violent and violent criminal offending. In this study, we examine secondary-data collected from a transnational sample of survey respondents (n = 17404) to test a predictive model of low self-control on outcomes related to intimate partner violence for both perpetrators and victims. We control for several variables related to socio-demographic characteristics, substance use history, and deviance history when we test our model using logistic regression analysis. The results from our analysis indicates that a unidimensional measure of low self-control is a consistent and statistically significant predictor of outcomes related to intimate partner violence, even when control variables are entered into the model. These findings have strong policy implications for identifying risk-factors and interventions associated with intimate partner violence.

The impacts of length of prison stay on recidivism of non-violent offenders in Oregon

Over the last five decades, US imprisonment growth has significantly strained state resources and extensively impacted communities. Due to increased costs and faced with the potential of opening a new correctional facility, Oregon passed its version of Justice Reinvestment (JRI) in 2013. It specifically targeted nonviolent crimes to reduce prison use, reduce recidivism, maintain public safety, and increase offender accountability. While Oregon and other states look to reduce prison use, including shortening sentences, there is concern that recidivism may rise. The current study assesses the impact of LOS on rearrest and reincarceration for nonviolent offenders in Oregon utilizing a quasi-experimental approach employing marginal means weighting through stratification. The results indicate that LOS has no meaningful impact on the recidivism rate in almost all cases and that sentences longer than 24 months are not likely warranted for nonviolent offenders. The results suggest that policymakers may consider shorter sentences without sacrificing public safety.

Pilot Mental Health Offender Program Improves Participant Outcomes and Lowers Costs in a Large Urban County.

Mass incarceration, particularly of the mentally ill, continues to pervade our criminal justice system. Jails in many areas have become the largest mental health facilities, especially in large urban communities, despite increasing societal recognition that those with mental illness are not best served behind bars. Misdemeanors are an often-overlooked contributor to mass incarceration, and may be preventable for those with chronic severe mental illness. This Northeast Florida pilot program, the Mental Health Offenders Program (MHOP), is based on the successful Miami Eleventh Circuit Court Criminal Mental Health Project. MHOP provided pretrial release from custody, through diversion with a customized plan of care to stabilize defendants, using court supervision to ensure compliance. With community partners, the MHOP pilot enrolled 20 individuals with chronic severe mental illness and recurrent misdemeanor charges; 15 were able to continue in the program with stabilization of their mental health and reduction of county costs both documented. The MHOP pilot demonstrates that community resources can be successfully shifted to benefit mentally ill, non-violent offenders and the larger community by helping severely mentally ill clients achieve stability by providing healthcare, housing, and income, while decreasing costs for the community in a humane way.

Exploring Characteristics of Homicide Offenders With Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders Via Machine Learning.

The link between schizophrenia and homicide has long been the subject of research with significant impact on mental health policy, clinical practice, and public perception of people with psychiatric disorders. The present study investigates factors contributing to completed homicides committed by offenders diagnosed with schizophrenia referred to a Swiss forensic institution, using machine learning algorithms. Data were collected from 370 inpatients at the Centre for Inpatient Forensic Therapy at the Zurich University Hospital of Psychiatry. A total of 519 variables were explored to differentiate homicidal and other (violent and non-violent) offenders. The dataset was split employing variable filtering, model building, and selection embedded in a nested resampling approach. Ten factors regarding criminal and psychiatric history and clinical factors were identified to be influential in differentiating between homicidal and other offenders. Findings expand the research on influential factors for completed homicide in patients with schizophrenia. Limitations, clinical relevance, and future directions are discussed.

From drug prohibition to regulation: a public health imperative

From drug prohibition to regulation: a public health imperative

How dark is the personality of murderers? Psychopathy, Machiavellianism, and sadism in homicide offenders

Dark personality traits describe amoral and antisocial behavioral dispositions and are often described by psychopathy (i.e., interpersonal, affective, lifestyle, and antisocial characteristics), narcissism, Machiavellianism, and sadism. These traits are related to various socially detrimental behavioral outcomes, including criminal behavior and delinquency. Furthermore, psychopathy is frequently related to homicide, both in scientific and in popular literature; however, the empirical data on the link between psychopathy and other dark traits with homicide is still scarce. We examined self-reported psychopathy, Machiavellianism, sadism, and the indicators of criminal recidivism (number of offences, number of lawful sentences and penal recidivism) in a sample of male homicide offenders (N = 46), other violent offenders (N = 82), and non-violent offenders (N = 119). The results showed that homicide offenders have less pronounced psychopathy, sadism, and criminal recidivism compared to the other two groups – the differences were particularly evident in comparison to the group of non-homicide violent offenders. There were no statistically significant differences in Machiavellianism. Our data cast a doubt on the widely acknowledged link between psychopathy and murder. The findings can be explained largely by the fact that homicide is a heterogeneous criminal offence; while it is possible that psychopathy and other dark traits may be linked to some types of homicide, this link cannot be established for homicide in general.

Changes of Brain Structures and Psychological Characteristics in Predatory, Affective Violent and Nonviolent Offenders.

Purpose: Violent subjects were demonstrated to exhibit abnormal brain structures; however, the brain changes may be different between criminals committing affective (VA), predatory violence (VP), and non-violence (NV). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare the differences in brain structures and psychological characteristics between VA, VP, and NV offenders. Methods: Twenty male criminal subjects (7 VP; 6 VA; and 7 NV) offenders; and twenty age-matched male healthy non-criminals were enrolled in this study. All subjects received psychological assessments as well as magnetic resonance imaging scans of the brain. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to understand the differences among four groups with Bonferroni correction. The voxel-based morphometry and voxel-wise diffusion tensor imaging analyses were performed to compare the gray matter (GM) volume and white matter (WM) integrity between the groups. In significant regions, a Spearman correlation analysis was performed to understand the relationship between the brain changes and psychological scores. Results: The ANOVA analysis showed that AUDIT scores were significantly different among four groups, but no significant group difference was noted after Bonferroni correction. The imaging comparisons further demonstrated that the VP and NV offenders exhibited significant alterations of WM and GM tissues in the rectus and superior temporal gyrus, respectively. In addition, the VP offenders exhibited greater GM volumes than VA offenders in the right middle frontal gyrus, and NV offenders had greater GM volumes than VP offenders in the bilateral thalamus. Conclusion: We concluded that the VA, VP, and NV groups exhibited different degrees of alterations in GM and WM tissues in regions involved in emotion and cognition.

A Global View of Women, Prison, and Aftercare: A Call for Reform

Ending violence against women-part of the priority theme of the CSW65-is an international human rights issue. We must prevent and combat violence against all women, including those who are incarcerated worldwide. Incarcerated women are among the most marginalized populations; they have suffered numerous victimizations without ever seeing their perpetrators brought to justice. Though most incarcerated women have committed non-violent offenses, they are locked away in prisons, far away from their loved ones, and subject to inhumane conditions. According to international human rights law, preventing VAW is the responsibility of the State in all contexts, including prisons. In this article, we acknowledge the global treatment of women in prison as a form of State violence against women and provide policy reform for incarcerated women worldwide. We propose four strategies to reform women's incarceration worldwide: (1) recognizing and dismantling systemic and institutionalized discrimination and biases; (2) abolition of prison sentences for non-violent offenders; (3) restorative approaches to aftercare (or reentry); and (4) making children the priority.

The role of symptoms of psychopathy in persistent violence over the criminal career into full adulthood

Purpose: The extant criminal career literature supports the assertion that risk factors for violent and non-violent offending are the same. However, such studies have not examined the role of psychopathic personality disturbance (PPD) in the development of persistent violence across the life course. A situational action theory perspective was used to help illustrate the utility of PPD in explaining persistent violent offending. Methods: Convictions for violent offense and non-violent offenses were measured for Canadian male (n = 262) and female (n = 64) offenders at each year between ages 12 and 28. Semi-parametric group-based modeling was used to identify joint trajectories of violent and non-violent offending. Symptoms of adolescent PPD and other criminogenic risk factors were also measured. Results: Through the joint trajectory model, five violent and five non-violent trajectories were identified. PPD emerged as a strong predictor of membership in the trajectory associated with chronic violent offending but lower levels of non-violent offending. Conclusions: Contrary to earlier criminal career research, the most persistent violent offenders were not also involved in the highest rate of general offending. Theories that help explain why individuals are involved in persistent violence are needed. Incorporating PPD into such a theoretical framework appears necessary.

Diversion and Restorative Justice: Salt Lake Peer Court Disrupting Disproportionate Minority Contact?

There is an increased acceptance of youth courts grounded in restorative justice principles to divert first-time nonviolent offenders away from formal juvenile court entry. Research assessing the effectiveness of various teen/peer courts is mixed, and focuses mainly on recidivism. This study analyzes 2010 to 2016 Salt Lake Peer Court data to examine the relationship legal and extralegal variables have on the participation in and completion of this diversionary program for first-time youth offenders. Overall, legal factors affected outcomes more than extralegal factors. Gender proved insignificant in both models with race, age, and school socioeconomic status (SES) producing varied significant effects in outcome models. Offense severity produced consistent strong significant effects across model outcomes. Implications of the study point to the possibilities of peer courts for reducing disproportionate minority contact.

Association of aggressivity at adolescence and criminality to severe assault exposure among former adolescent psychiatric inpatients

This study investigated the associations of adolescent aggression, and criminality, to severe hospital-treated assault exposures among young adults (n = 508) with a history of adolescent psychiatric inpatient treatment between 2001-2006. Participants were interviewed during hospitalization using K-SADS-PL to assess psychiatric disorders, and to obtain information on aggressivity. Data on crimes committed were obtained from the Finnish Legal Register Centre, and the treatment episodes for assault exposures from the Finnish National Care Register for Health Care, up to end of 2016. Predictors for severe assault exposure were male sex (OR = 2.1), short temperedness (OR = 2.4), non-violent offending (OR = 2.6), and violent offending (OR = 4.8). These results indicate that the participants most vulnerable to severe assaults were those suffering from a continuum of aggressivity across their lifetime. Our findings can be utilized to identify adolescents at risk of severe assault exposure, and to reduce this risk by focusing on appropriate treatments for these vulnerable adolescents.

Arguing for Criminal Justice Reform: Examining the Effects of Message Framing on Policy Preferences

Across the U.S., policy makers are enacting criminal justice reform while limiting many of those reforms to low-level, non-violent offenders. Given the power the public wields in shaping policy, it is necessary to consider which arguments for reform are most effective and who is viewed as most deserving of those reforms. The current study finds that varying the argument for reform, such as highlighting racial inequities, does not affect support for reform policies, regardless of the type of offender. Additionally, although respondents generally supported reform policies, results revealed significantly less support for implementing those reforms for violent offenders. Finally, findings indicate that individuals who believe violent crime is more of a Black phenomenon are less likely to support reform. These findings demonstrate that, to enact broader reform, it is necessary to address the public’s preexisting opinions about crime more so than debate which rhetorical arguments should be used.

Adverse childhood experiences and offending among Hispanic adults in the U.S.: Examining differences in prevalence and effects across nativity

ObjectivesThe first objective is to examine the relationships between adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and violent and nonviolent offending across generations of Hispanic adults in the United States. The second objective is to examine whether these relationships vary based on nativity. MethodsData come from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC-III; N = 6866 Hispanic adults). Negative-binomial regression was used to estimate the relationships between ACEs and offending. Analyses for violent and nonviolent offending were conducted separately. Comparisons were made across nativity by examining the differences in the marginal effects across groups. ResultsA wider range of ACEs were associated with violent offending among native-born U.S. Hispanics. The number of ACEs associated with nonviolent offending across nativity was comparable with some differences in magnitude. Cumulative ACEs were significant for all groups across both types of offending but varied in magnitude across nativity. ConclusionsNativity contextualizes the relationship between ACEs and offending among U.S. Hispanics, especially for violent behavior. However, there is notable comparability between groups as well. These results highlight the importance of ACEs on later adult outcomes and the need to better consider how demographic and cultural factors can inform those relationships.

Deferred prosecution in Jacksonville is reaching acutely ill population

A Jacksonville, Florida, human services organization that is also a federally qualified health center is preparing to double the capacity of a program launched to reduce jail recidivism among nonviolent offenders with mental health needs. Leaders at the Sulzbacher Center found somewhat surprisingly during the initiative's nine‐month pilot phase that nearly all program participants lacked permanent housing.

Exploring effects of psycho-bio-social risk factors on later offending

Different perspectives in criminology have explored how potential risk factors affect delinquency and criminal behavior over the life-course. Although many scholars look at risk factors individually and estimate how they may affect future criminal involvement, an emerging school of thought has proposed that risk factors may work in tandem to affect future criminality. This emerging line of research uses a cumulative approach to the study of crime, considering the role of multiple risk factors on criminal involvement. This study aims at using a cumulative stressor approach to look at the effect of summative biosocial, psychopathological, and family risk factors on later offending. To do so, a sample of high-risk offenders is used to estimate the role of cumulative biosocial, psychological, and family-related risk factors of violent and non-violent offending. The results suggest that biosocial and family risk factors seem to significantly predict offending frequency, while psychopathologies seem to have a crime-reducing effect. Additionally, offenders with more biosocial and family risk factors seem to offend more seriously and at a higher frequency.

Self-harm and suicidality among three subgroups of male sex offenders: results from an Australian prisoner cohort

ObjectivePrisoners complete suicide and self-harm more frequently than members of the community. Sex offenders have been found to be at greater risk of engaging in these behaviours. This study examines the characteristics, prevalence, and predictors of self-harm and suicide attempts among: sex offenders that only victimise children (ChildSOs); adults (AdultSOs); or both (age-crossover polymorphous; PolySOs).MethodsData from three waves (1996, 2001, 2009) of the New South Wales (NSW) Inmate Health Survey was linked to the State’s re-offending database to identify men with histories of sexual offending. The health surveys captured self-report data on self-harm and suicidality.ResultsNon-sexual violent offenders (15%) and AdultSOs (14%) had the highest rate of self-harm, significantly more than ChildSOs (11%), non-sexual non-violent offenders (10%), and PolySOs (0%). Several factors significantly predicted self-harm at the bivariate level for both ChildSOs and AdultSOs, with unique predictors for each group. At the multivariate level, manic-depression trended towards significance for ChildSOs and any mental health condition remained a significant predictor for AdultSOs who self-harmed relative to AdultSOs who had not (aOR = 11.989, 95%CI [1.14, 126.66]). Approximately 23% of AdultSOs, 22% of PolySOs, and 19% of ChildSOs reported a suicide attempt throughout their lifetime, whereas only 15% of non-sexual non-violent offenders reported an attempt. At the bivariate level, few factors were significant for ChildSOs while several factors were significant for AdultSOs. At the multivariate level, a diagnosis of depression and treatment with psychiatric medication trended towards being significant predictors of suicide attempts for ChildSOs. In contrast, treatment with psychiatric medication (aOR = 25.732, 95%CI [1.91, 347.19])] remained a significant predictor for AdultSOs who attempted suicide relative to AdultSOs who had not, as well as historical psychiatric hospitalisation (aOR = 6.818, 95%CI [1.04, 44.82]) and self-harm (aOR = 5.825, 95%CI [1.31, 25.99]).ConclusionSex offenders are at significantly higher risk of attempting and completing suicide relative to non-sexual non-violent offenders and warrant special attention. The prevalence rates and predictors of self-harm and suicidality suggest differences between sex offender subgroups may exist. These hold implications for the criminal justice and public health systems for addressing needs and identifying those most at risk of self-harm and suicide.

Rethinking Sanctioning for Offenders with Mental Health Issues: A Balanced Justice Approach

The public’s perspective regarding sanctioning offenders, especially violent and nonviolent, tend to support either a rehabilitative or balanced approach to justice. This study aims to better understand perspectives on sanctioning violent and nonviolent mental health offenders. We draw on a survey of 575 college students from a large university in the south. We assess public perceptions of whether successful reform is possible for violent and nonviolent mental health offenders, if they are willing to work to reform, and if they deserve treatment. The results highlighted a more rehabilitative attitude towards nonviolent mental health offenders and a balanced approaach to violent mental health offenders. These results suggest the importance of considering alternative approaches to sanctioning mental health offenders, including the use of crisis intervention teams and mental health courts rather than a strict adherence to punitive measures.

Neurocognitive functioning among people accessing an addiction neuropsychology clinic with and without a history of offending behaviour

Effectiveness of interventions for violent behaviour may be undermined by the presence of neurocognitive impairment, which is known to be common among alcohol and other drug (AOD) users and violent offenders. The current study aimed to examine whether the cognitive functioning of individuals with AOD histories presenting to a specialist addiction neuropsychology service differed according to their offending history (i.e. non-offending, non-violent offending and violent offending), using a retrospective case file audit design. Data were extracted from 190 clients. Tests assessed a breadth of cognitive domains. Violent offenders demonstrated the lowest premorbid IQ out of the three groups, and a significantly higher proportion of violent offenders presented with impaired divided attention and impaired cognitive inhibition compared to non-violent offenders. Rates of impairment across groups were well beyond those expected within the general population. Delivery of both AOD and violence interventions should be adapted to accommodate individuals’ cognitive difficulties.

Violent and non-violent offending in patients with schizophrenia: Exploring influences and differences via machine learning

ObjectivesThe link between schizophrenia and violent offending has long been the subject of research with significant impact on mental health policy, clinical practice and public perception of the dangerousness of people with psychiatric disorders. The present study attempts to identify factors that differentiate between violent and non-violent offenders based on a unique sample of 370 forensic offender patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorder by employing machine learning algorithms and an extensive set of variables. MethodsUsing machine learning algorithms, 519 variables were explored in order to differentiate violent and non-violent offenders. To minimize the risk of overfitting, the dataset was split, employing variable filtering, machine learning model building and selection embedded in a nested resampling approach on one subset. The best model was then selected, and the most important variables applied on the second data subset. ResultsTen factors regarding criminal and psychiatric history as well as clinical, developmental, and social factors were identified to be most influential in differentiating between violent and non-violent offenders and are discussed in light of prior research on this topic. With an AUC of 0.76, a sensitivity of 72% and a specificity of 62%, a correct classification into violent and non-violent offences could be determined in almost three quarters of cases. ConclusionsOur findings expand current research on the factors influencing violent offending in patients with SSD, which is crucial for the development of preventive and therapeutic strategies that could potentially reduce the prevalence of violence in this population. Limitations, clinical relevance and future directions are discussed.