Nonviolent Crimes Research Articles

Criminal Histories and Rates of Recidivism Among Two Subtypes of Psychopathic Individuals

Although it is well established that individuals with psychopathic traits are a high-risk group for criminal recidivism, there is considerable evidence that psychopathy is a heterogeneous personality disorder comprised of two subtypes who differ on levels of negative affect (NA). However, few studies have examined differences in criminal histories, and fewer still have investigated differences in recidivism among subtypes of psychopathy. The current study compared criminal histories and recidivism rates between psychopathy subtypes differing in NA (high-NA vs. low-NA) within a sample of adult males incarcerated in state prisons. The high-NA and low-NA psychopathy subtypes did not differ on histories of total, nonviolent, or violent crime, and did not differ on rates of total, nonviolent, or violent recidivism. This finding highlights equally high levels of criminal risk associated with both subtypes of psychopathic individuals. Intervention strategies should be prioritized for both subgroups to effectively reduce the criminal costs associated with psychopathy.

Association Between Structural Housing Repairs for Low-Income Homeowners and Neighborhood Crime

The root causes of violent crime in Black urban neighborhoods are structural, including residential racial segregation and concentrated poverty. Previous work suggests that simple and scalable place-based environmental interventions can overcome the legacies of neighborhood disinvestment and have implications for health broadly and crime specifically. To assess whether structural repairs to the homes of low-income owners are associated with a reduction in nearby crime. This cross-sectional study using difference-in-differences analysis included data from the City of Philadelphia Basic Systems Repair Program (BSRP) from January 1, 2006, through April 30, 2013. The unit of analysis was block faces (single street segments between 2 consecutive intersecting streets) with or without homes that received the BSRP intervention. The blocks of homes that received BSRP services were compared with the blocks of eligible homes that were still on the waiting list. Data were analyzed from December 1, 2019, to February 28, 2021. The BSRP intervention includes a grant of up to $20 000 provided to low-income owners for structural repairs to electrical, plumbing, heating, and roofing damage. Eligible homeowners must meet income guidelines, which are set by the US Department of Housing and Urban Development and vary yearly. The main outcome was police-reported crime across 7 major categories of violent and nonviolent crimes (homicide, assault, burglary, theft, robbery, disorderly conduct, and public drunkenness). A total of 13 632 houses on 6732 block faces received the BSRP intervention. Owners of these homes had a mean (range) age of 56.5 (18-98) years, were predominantly Black (10 952 [78.6%]) or Latino (1658 [11.9%]) individuals, and had a mean monthly income of $993. These census tracts compared with those without BSRP intervention had a substantially larger Black population (49.5% vs 12.2%; |D| = 0.406) and higher unemployment rate (17.3% vs 9.3%; |D| = 0.357). The main regression analysis demonstrated that the addition to a block face of a property that received a BSRP intervention was associated with a 21.9% decrease in the expected count of total crime (incidence rate ratio [IRR], 0.78; 95% CI, 0.76-0.80; P < .001), 19.0% decrease in assault (IRR, 0.81; 95% CI, 0.79-0.84; P < .001), 22.6% decrease in robbery (IRR, 0.77; 95% CI, 0.75-0.80; P < .001), and 21.9% decrease in homicide (IRR, 0.78; 95% CI, 0.71-0.86; P < .001). When restricting the analysis to blocks with properties that had ever received a BSRP intervention, a total crime reduction of 25.4% was observed for each additional property (IRR, 0.75; 95% CI, 0.73-0.77; P < .001). A significant dose-dependent decrease in total crime was found such that the magnitude of association increased with higher numbers of homes participating in the BSRP on a block. This study found that the BSRP intervention was associated with a modest but significant reduction in crime. These findings suggest that intentional and targeted financial investment in structural, scalable, and sustainable place-based interventions in neighborhoods that are still experiencing the lasting consequences of structural racism and segregation is a vital step toward achieving health equity.

Alcohol outlets, social disorganization, and non-violent crimes in urban neighborhoods

AbstractMany studies show an association between alcohol outlets and violence, though fewer consider non-violent crime. We add to this literature using block group data from Milwaukee, Wisconsin, to explore whether (1) on- and off-premise alcohol outlet density is related to thefts from vehicles and vandalism and (2) social disorganization moderates these associations. Using spatially informed regression models, we found positive effects of on-premise alcohol outlet density on thefts from vehicles. We also found positive effects of on- and off-premise alcohol outlet density on vandalism. Social disorganization was not a consistent moderator of these associations.

VIOLENT CRIMES AND ADVERSE CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCES IN YOUNG OFFENDERS AT BLITAR JUVENILE DETENTION CENTRE

Violent crimes yield to fear and unsafe feelings have been also done by children. The General Strain theory explained that violence was occurred due to the criminal coping of individuals, who experienced the situation of pressures that yield into anger which might be developed into violent behaviour. Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) is a form of pressure within the family that might contribute to criminal coping. This research was aimed at investigating the differences of ACE on violent crimes and non-violent crimes. Participants of this study were 58 out of 213 boy offenders aged 12-18 years old in the Juvenile Detention Center in Blitar. These participants were chosen by the accidental sampling method based on the type of cases, in which 28 boys were on violent crimes (robbery, child protection, murder, and beating), while 30 boys were on non-violent crimes (theft and drug abuses). The measurement used was the ACE scale, applied with some modifications. The reliability coefficient of the ACE scale was .843. Data were analysed using a non-parametric method, which was the Mann-Whitney U. The examination of mean rank and the effect size of this study showed that ACE was higher on violent crimes, even though this result was not supported by the hypothesis examination result, which was not significant (U = 3.47, p = .129). It could be concluded that ACE on the violent crimes group tended to be higher compared to the non-violent crimes group.

Engaging unhoused community members in the design of an alternative first responder program aimed at reducing the criminalization of homelessness.

Police are often called to address concerns about people experiencing homelessness, with arrests often resulting from low-level, nonviolent crimes, and violations of minor nuisance ordinances. In Portland, Oregon, advocates lobbied for a new model of emergency response for 911 calls involving unhoused community members and people experiencing behavioral health crises. To ensure the program reflected the needs and perspectives of people experiencing homelessness, teams of researchers, community volunteers, and people with lived experience interviewed 184 people in camps, shelters, and parks. Teams asked unhoused people how the program should be designed, including who the first responders should be, how they should approach individuals in crisis, what resources they should provide, and how they should be trained. This article describes the methods, findings, and recommendations from our collaborative survey process aimed at ensuring that the voices of people experiencing homelessness informed the development of the Portland Street Response pilot program.

A Case Study of Non-Violent Property Crime Victimisation in a South African Urban Residential Neighbourhood: Exploring the Excessive Use of Force and Destruction Caused by Burglars to Gain Entry to Victims’ Properties

Commentators frequently report on the high prevalence of violent crime in South Africa and often label the country as one of the most violent in the world, with a subculture of violence and criminality. This paper focuses on a different perspective, reporting on the excessive use of force and destruction caused by offenders in South Africa to gain entry to victims’ properties in the execution of non-violent property crimes, in a particular residential burglary. Literature on property crimes has been considering the aggravating circumstances of violent property crimes. However, the use of excessive force and destruction caused by burglars to gain access to victims’ properties in the execution of residential burglary remains relatively untested in the literature. In this light, the purpose of this study is to describe the unprecedented levels of force used and destruction caused by burglars to gain access to victims’ properties during residential burglary victimisation in an urban residential neighbourhood in Johannesburg, South Africa. A qualitative research approach is followed. A case study design was used to select an urban residential neighbourhood in Johannesburg as a case study. A data set of (n = 1 431) crimes were purposively selected by means of non-probability sampling. Qualitative and quantitative content analysis was used to analyse the data. This paper offers valuable insight into the forceful and destructive conduct of burglars in the selected neighbourhood and contributes to the body of knowledge by providing an improved understanding of target hardening as a preventive measure against residential burglary victimisation as well as on methods of entry used by burglars in incidents of residential burglary. The results of reported non-violent property crime victimisation incidences by this community’s neighbourhood watch scheme suggest that residential burglars in the selected neighbourhood are uncharacteristically forceful and ravage in their actions since they frequently revert to extreme use of force and destruction, disproportionate to the crime perpetrated. It is concluded that this radical degree of force used and destruction caused by residential burglars to gain entry to victims’ properties in the execution of non-violent property crimes is not typically associated with residential burglary as compared to countries internationally.

THE EFFECTS OF INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIAL RISK FACTORS ON VIOLENT CRIMES OF JUVENILES

Introduction: The involvement of children in violent crimes as a perpetrator gets the attention of both researchers and society. The purpose of the study is to identify the risk factors that distinguish juveniles in terms of violent crime. The criminal behavior children were examined in two categories in this study. The first category is composed of non-violent crimes against individuals such as larcency, drug use, opposition to the law of meetings and demonstrations. The second category consists of crimes involving intensive violence against individuals such as armed robbery, felonious injury, murder, and sexual assault. Method: Within the scope of the study 940 court files of the juveniles, which are adjudicated between 2015 and 2019 in the Istanbul Courthouse Jurisdiction, were selected randomly. Available information about children in the court file recorded retrospectively. Individual (gender, age at the date of crime, substance use, working in a job, self-harming behavior, run away from home and previous crime history) and social risk factors (duration of education, risky peer, parental education level, working parent, parental crime history, family type, number of siblings, sibling crime history, sibling substance abuse, domestic violence, sharing problems with the family, total monthly income of the family, domestic migration) was compiled using binary coding system. The factors affecting violent crime were determined by logistic regression analysis. Findings: It was found that individual risk factors consist of being male gender, age at the date of crime, substance use, working in a job and run away from home. Whereas the context of social risk factors, it was found that the father's job, father's history of crime and not sharing personal troubles with the family predicted violent crimes. When the researchers put both groups into analysis at the same time, they found that being male gender, age at the date of crime, working in a job, a runaway from home, domestic violence, sharing personal problems with the family have predicted violence. Result: As a result, both individual and social risk factors have been found effective in dragging children to violent crimes.

Comorbidity with substance abuse and its influence in a forensic population: A retrospective study

IntroductionThe criminality associated with psychiatric disorders has been extensively studied with some studies showing a greater risk of violence in these patients. Substance abuse has been long linked to criminal and antisocial behaviours, but what happens when is in comorbidity with other psychiatric disorders.ObjectivesThe authors aim to study the impact of substance abuse comorbidity in type of crime and other characteristics in a forensic ward population.MethodsA retrospective study was designed, including patients admitted in the Forensic ward of Coimbra Hospital and University Center between 2018 and 2020.ResultsOur study included 110 patients, 39 of which had comorbidity with substance abuse. Although the authors couldn’t find differences in the type of crime committed regarding the patient’s primary diagnosis, substance abuse was significantly associated with non-violent crimes. The prevalence of homicide was significantly inferior in psychoactive substance users and the prevalence of domestic violence was significantly greater. However, the prevalence of a criminal history was significantly higher in patients with comorbidity with substance abuse. Patients with substance abuse had significantly higher childhood adverse events reports.ConclusionsInterestingly, criminal behaviors prior to admission were more frequent in patients with substance abuse, which is understandable. However, the type of crimes were significantly less serious in this patients, which can mean that, although these consumptions are a risk factor for criminal behavior, the association in less important in crimes like murder. The exposition to childhood adverse events is a well-known risk factor for substance abuse in adulthood.DisclosureNo significant relationships.

Attributable fractions for substance use in relation to crime.

AimsBuilding upon an existing methodology and conceptual framework for estimating the association between the use of substances and crime, we calculated attributable fractions that estimate the proportion of crimes explained by alcohol and six other categories of psychoactive substances.DesignCross‐sectional surveys.SettingCanadian federal correctional institutions.ParticipantsCanadian men (n = 27 803) and women (n = 1335) offenders who began serving a custodial sentence in a Canadian federal correctional institution between 2006 and 2016.MeasurementsOffenders completed the computerized assessment of substance abuse, a self‐report tool designed to assess (1) whether the offence for which they were convicted would have occurred had they not been intoxicated from alcohol or another substance, (2) whether they committed the offence to support their alcohol or other substance use and (3) whether they were dependent on alcohol (alcohol dependence scale) or another substance (drug abuse screening test). Offences were grouped into four mutually exclusive categories: violent crimes, non‐violent crimes, impaired driving and substance‐defined crimes. This study focused on violent and non‐violent crime categories. Substances assessed were: alcohol, cannabis, opioids, other central nervous system (CNS) depressants, cocaine, other CNS stimulants and other substances.FindingsAccording to offender self‐report, 42% of all violent and non‐violent crime would probably not have occurred if the perpetrator had not been under the influence of, or seeking, alcohol or other substances. Between 2006 and 2016, 20% of violent crimes and 7% of non‐violent crimes in Canada were considered attributable to alcohol. In contrast, all other psychoactive substance categories combined were associated with 26% of all violent crime and 25% of non‐violent crime during the same time‐frame.ConclusionsAttributable fraction analyses show that more than 42% of Canadian crime resulting in a custodial sentence between 2006 and 2016 would probably not have occurred if the perpetrator had not been under the influence of or seeking alcohol or other drugs. Attributable fractions for alcohol and substance‐related crime are a potentially useful resource for estimating the impact of alcohol and other substances on crime.

Early Adolescent Predictors of Violent Behavior: Child and Contextual Risk, and Moderation by Rejecting Parenting

The current study explored early adolescent child-level predictors (physical aggression, impulsivity, empathy) and contextual-level predictors (peer deviance, neighborhood dangerousness) of violent and nonviolent antisocial behavior (AB) in late adolescence. Additionally, we tested the moderating role of rejecting parenting on these associations based on the importance of parent-child relationships in early adolescence and documented bidirectional associations between parenting and our predictor variables. Participants ( N = 272) came from the Pitt Mother and Child Project, a longitudinal study of high-risk boys. Higher levels of early adolescent physical aggression significantly predicted late adolescent engagement in both nonviolent and violent crimes. Peer deviance, impulsivity, and neighborhood dangerousness were also associated with later juvenile AB. Rejecting parenting moderated several of these associations. Results support the predictive validity of several early adolescent child- and contextual-level variables—particularly early adolescent aggression—for subsequent engagement in both violent and nonviolent AB.

A study on the nature of criminal offences in prisoners with psychiatric disorders

Background: There are very few Indian studies related to the nature of criminal offences in individuals with psychiatric disorders.Methods: Sample consisted of 50 prisoners admitted to a Mental hospital. Their diagnostic categorization was done according to ICD-10 diagnostic research criteria and criminal offences using the Indian Penal code (IPC). The criminal offences and nature of psychiatric illness were divided into two broad groups as violent/non-violent criminal offence and schizophrenia/non-schizophrenia groups respectively.Results: 46 males and 4 female prisoners participated. Murder (IPC 302) was the most common crime among the prisoners. 88% (44) of them had a history of violent crimes and 12% (6) had non-violent crimes. The violent crimes were mainly murder (IPC 302), attempt to murder (IPC 307), and culpable homicide not amounting to murder (IPC 304) and voluntarily causing grievous hurt by dangerous weapons (IPC 323, 324, 325, 326). The non-violent crimes were destroying, damaging or defiling (IPC 295), kidnapping (IPC 363), theft (IPC 379) and sexual crimes (IPC 376). All females had committed murder while males had other crimes in addition to murder.Conclusions: Murder, attempt to murder, rape, kidnapping, grievous injury and theft were the crimes committed by the prisoners. Murder was the most common crime committed by both male and female prisoners. Most prisoners with violent crimes (murder) had a diagnosis of schizophrenia. This has implications for mental health services, training of mental health professional research and policy in forensic psychiatry in the Indian setting.

Examining the nexus between involvement in crime and delinquency and being processed through the criminal justice system

ABSTRACT The criminal justice system is designed to detect, apprehend, punish, and rehabilitate criminal offenders. Precisely how effective the criminal justice system is at achieving these goals is not entirely known. The current study sought to add to this gap in the knowledge base by examining the connection between self-reported crime and delinquency and the probability of being arrested, convicted, sentenced to probation, and incarcerated. To do so, male and female respondents drawn from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health) were analyzed. The results revealed that respondents who were relatively more involved in acts of nonviolent crime and delinquency, as well as violent crime and delinquency, were significantly more likely to be processed through the criminal justice than were those who were less involved in such behaviors. These findings indicate that being processed through the criminal justice system is a function of criminal involvement. We conclude by calling for additional research to determine whether the effectiveness of the criminal justice system could be improved.

Exploring Stakeholder and Parent Perspectives of a County Response to Adolescent Vaping and E-Cigarette Use

In the United States, regular cigarette use has steadily declined over the years; however, it has been met with an increase in vaping and e-cigarette use. In Tampa, Florida, this trend has been found especially prevalent among school-aged youth. To combat issues of substance use among youth and prevent criminalization for nonviolent crimes, school-age youth cited for use and possession of tobacco products in Hillsborough County were mandated to attend the Youth Tobacco Awareness Course (YTAC). The aim of this study was to investigate YTAC for its perceived effectiveness and usefulness in mitigating adolescent e-cigarette use. Classroom observations, parent focus groups, and program stakeholder interviews were conducted to comprehensively evaluate this program. Findings from this evaluation led to a deeper understanding of the barriers and facilitators to an effective course, the needs and perceptions of program stakeholders, as well as recommendations for improved future interventions.

The refugee wave to Germany and its impact on crime

Does migration cause crime? Drawing on recent migratory flows to Germany, I address this question by distinguishing two types of migrants: asylum seekers and recognized refugees. Using German administrative panel data from 2010 to 2015, I add to the literature by disentangling the direct crime impact of both groups from indirect crime responses by other citizens. For asylum seekers, I exploit dispersal policies and locational restrictions and find no causal impact on crime except for migration-specific offenses. For recognized refugees, who may endogenously move, I apply a shift-share instrument and find a positive association between the share of recognized refugees and the overall crime rate, which is driven by non-violent property crimes and frauds. The empirical results are robust to several robustness checks and prove consistent with theoretical expectations.

Pandemija kovid-19 i penitencijarni sistem - prva iskustva

The C-19 pandemic, as a 'mirror of truth', showed the true face of modern societies, characterized by a general race for profit, lack of empathy, discrimination against numerous social groups, and even manifestations of racism. In the first months, before the vaccines (never faster created) were put on the market, the public authorities of most countries opted for strict measures that included locking and fundamental changes in the lifestyle of the entire population. Considering that the functioning of many institutions has been disrupted, the penitentiary system has been facing new challenges as well. Overcrowded institutions with a large number of persons in a health risk, with poor hygienic conditions and insufficient number of employees in health services were already a suitable environment for the spread of infectious diseases. These conditions have been neglected for decades. Now that a dangerous, easily transmitted disease has become a danger not only to prisoners, but also to prison staff, their families, and public health in general. It has become clear that something urgent needs to be done. Maintaining physical distance was usually not possible due to overcrowding, and palliative measures of organizational (expansion of the semi-freedom system) and architectural character (rearrangement of the institution's space) did not yield results. After a lot of controversy and resistance, most countries decided to opt for decarceration - the early release of a large number of members of endangered categories of prisoners, including perpetrators of minor, non-violent crimes. However, it turned out that - without real preparation before release and without proper acceptance by probation services (especially in the case of socially vulnerable categories of persons, homeless and immigrants) - this measure did reduce the infection rate in penitentiaries, but further jeopardized public health. The pandemic has therefore showed that the penal system must undergo a fundamental transformation in which incarceration will be exceptional, an extreme measure to be replaced by a number of alternatives. Perhaps the citizens, after many traumatic experiences with several weeks of lockdown during which they were in fact deprived of their freedom of movement, will support more this change instead of the habit of succumbing to new waves of penal populism and retributivism.

Long Road to Nowhere: How Southern States Struggle with Long-Term Incarceration

The Deep South is the epicenter of mass incarceration. The United States incarcerates more people per capita than any other country, with prison populations growing by 86% between 1990 and 2019. For Southern states, prison populations exploded by 127% during that same period. During this time in history, America implemented “tough on crime” policies that responded to public health issues like the drug epidemic with incarceration instead of rehabilitation. Laws for even nonviolent crimes became more punitive with longer sentences, and people of color were disproportionately pushed into prisons with little hope for parole. Today, incarceration rates for Latinx and Black people are more than two and five times the incarceration rate of whites, respectively. The commitment to the “tough on crime” narrative led to significantly overcrowded prisons, which not only put a strain on state budgets, but also created human rights challenges regarding how to maintain a safe and healthy prison environment. Three Southern states in particular — Alabama, Florida, and Louisiana — exemplify how prison populations have grown to be problematic in three unique ways. Alabama is home to the most overcrowded prisons in the country, currently at 151% of capacity. Even after sentencing reforms were passed in 2017, recent legislation concerning the Alabama Board of Pardons and Paroles has severely diminished the parole chances of currently incarcerated people. Florida, with over 95,000 imprisoned people, has the third-largest prison population of any state in the country, and still adheres to a “Truth in Sentencing” rule requiring incarcerated people to serve at least 85% of their sentences, regardless of any demonstration of rehabilitation. As a result, Florida has grown to have the oldest prison population in the South, a group whose care is increasingly expensive. Louisiana has been known as the “incarceration capital of the world” for consistently having incredibly high incarceration rates. A large factor is the number of people serving life sentences without the possibility of parole, including juveniles. The lack of early prison release is just one of many contributors to mass incarceration in the South. The solutions also vary — from expanding parole eligibility and making it retroactive, to increasing incentives for rehabilitation credits, to re-calibrating triggers for life without parole sentences. This report will investigate the impact that over-incarceration has had in three Southern states, and provide recommendations on how each state can address the issue through policy change.

Gun Dealer Density and its Effect on Homicide

We explore the relationship between gun prevalence, homicides, and other crimes in the United States from 2003–2019. Unlike previous research, which typically uses an indirect, state-level measure of gun prevalence, we use a direct measure of guns in a narrow geographic area: gun dealers. We find an increase in gun dealer density is significantly and positively associated with increased homicides in subsequent years. We compare estimates from our preferred measure, the number of dealers per 100 square miles in a local area, to estimates found using other gun prevalence measure and find our preferred measure to be more consistent in magnitude and statistically significance across three different estimation methods. We go on to show that gun dealer density is not significantly correlated with non-gun homicides. We also find that increases in gun density is associated with a reduction in some types of non-violent property crime. However, because of data limitations, these results should be taken with healthy skepticism.

Conscription and Military Service: Do They Result in Future Violent and Non-Violent Incarcerations and Recidivism?

Employing nonparametric bounds, we examine the effect of military service on incarceration outcomes using the Vietnam draft lotteries as a possibly invalid instrumental variable for military service. The draft is allowed to have a direct effect on the outcomes independently of military service, disposing of the exclusion restriction. We find: (i) suggestive but not strong statistical evidence that the direct effect of the draft increases the incarceration rate for violent offenses for a particular cohort of draft avoiders, and (ii) military service increases the incarceration rate for violent and nonviolent crimes of white volunteers and veterans in certain birth cohorts.

Regarding the ancestral and direct objects of non-violent crime against the sexual integrity of a minor

The article analyzes the current state of the study of ancestral and direct objects of crimes against sexual freedom and sexual integrity of a person. The conclusion about the contradiction of some views of scientists on the content and interaction of sexual freedom and sexual inviolability as objects of criminal justice is substantiated. The position on the content of sexual inviolability as a universal social and biological condition and object of criminal legal protection, which has a multilevel social legal regulation (protection) and is distinguished: a) value, b) regulatory, c) medical, d) information and e) physical levels of sexual integrity. The problem of the relation between sexual freedom and sexual inviolability as objects of criminal protection in the doctrine of criminal law is resolved controversially. The established doctrinal provisions and their own views on the subject of the study, as well as the criminal legislation of Ukraine, which stood for the protection of sexual freedom and sexual inviolability of a person, an attempt was made to redefine the generic and direct objects of non-violent sexually assaulting crimes. minors. Relations with the absolute informational (mental) and physical (physical) sexual integrity of a minor are, first of all, protected by criminal legal means. These relationships are in the plane of the generic object, are its component part and form a homogeneous formation in the form of sexual inviolability of the person with other elements. Certainly, the allocation of information (mental) and physical (physical) components of sexual integrity of a minor is to some extent conditional. It is impossible to negatively affect the physical integrity, not to touch its mental component. Conversely, the mental impact on sexual integrity is bound to adversely affect physical integrity. The physical component of sexual integrity is harmed in all cases of sexual abuse of the perpetrator with the victim, which have many forms of sexual manipulation with the victim's body. Equally socially dangerous is sexual misconduct of a minor by talking cynically, displaying pornographic and erotic content, etc.

Conscription and Military Service

Employing nonparametric bounds, we examine the effect of military service on incarceration outcomes using the Vietnam draft lotteries as a possibly invalid instrumental variable for military service. The draft is allowed to have a direct effect on the outcomes independently of military service, disposing of the exclusion restriction. We find: (i) suggestive but not strong statistical evidence that the direct effect of the draft increases the incarceration rate for violent offenses for a particular cohort of draft avoiders, and (ii) military service increases the incarceration rate for violent and nonviolent crimes of white volunteers and veterans in certain birth cohorts.