Non-specific Immune Response Research Articles

The Effectiveness of Curcuma zedoaria Extract in Enhancing Non Spesific Immune Responses of Tiger Grouper (Epinephelus fuscoguttatus)

The present study was conducted to determine the effect of using turmeric extract (Curcuma zedoaria) on non specific immune of grouper (Epinephelus fuscoguttatus). During the study, fish were fed a diet containing 0, 0.5, 1.0, 2.5 g extract/kg feed twice a day for 14 days. Observations of non-specific immune parameters such as respiratory burst activity, chemiluminescent response, phagocytic activity, superoxidase dismutase (SOD) and lysozyme activity were sampled at 0, 1, 2, 4, 7 and 14 days. The results showed that fish fed C. zedoaria with 0.5 g/kg feed affected non-specific immune responses, and showed significant effect in the short term. On contrary, for long-term administration causes a decrease and inhibition of non-specific cellular defense activity. Thus, this study concluded that the administration of turmeric extract added to the feed can act as an immunostimulant and increase the non-specific immune response in grouper (E. fuscoguttatus).

Immunostimulant Activity of Marchantia paleacea Bertol. Herb Liverwort Ethanol Extract in BALB/c Mice

Immunostimulants are compounds that can stimulate an immune response by increasing the activity of non-specific and specific components of the immune system (humoral and cellular) against certain infections and diseases. The liverwort plant species Marchantia paleacea Bertol. has long been used as a source of nutrition and empirical medicine. However, scientifically there is still not much research data on immunomodulators in these plants. This study aims to determine the activity of immunomodulators in the ethanol extract of the herb Marchantia paleacea Bertol. in male mice of BALB/c strain. Bioactive compounds from this plant were extracted by maceration method using 96% ethanol. Extract characterization and phytochemical screening were determined according to WHO guidelines and standard procedures from previous studies. The immunomodulatory activity of the extract was tested by carbon clearance method and lymphoid organ index (non-specific responses), primary and secondary antibody titer tests (humoral specific responses), IL-2 cytokine levels and IFN-ɣ from serum secondary antibodies and delayed-type hypersensitivity reaction/DTH (cellular specific response). The results of qualitative phytochemical screening contained flavonoid compounds, saponins, phenolics, tannins and steroids/triterpenoids. The results of the non-specific immune response immunomodulator test showed that the dose of 52 mg/kg bw had the largest phagocytic index of 1.52 which included strong immunostimulation (K > 1.5) and the organ spleen index of 0.55 ± 0.11 which increased significantly compared to the control (p<0.05). The data on the acquisition of specific immune responses in the primary and secondary antibody titer test in the three test extracts resulted in increased titer levels compared to the control and at a dose of 52 mg/kg bw could significantly increase the levels of IL-2 cytokines in the control group (p<0,05). Meanwhile, in the DTH test, doses of 13 and 26 mg/kg bw could significantly increase the thickness of the soles of mice compared to controls (p<0.05).

Immunomodulatory effect of petroleum ether extract and ethyl acetate fraction of bengkoang (Pachyrhizus erosus (L.) Urban) in vitro

Bengkoang (Pachyrhizus erosus (L.) Urban) contains phytosterol and the isoflavone daidzein, which are thought to have immunomodulatory activity. There have been no studies reporting on the immunomodulatory effects of bengkoang extract containing polar and semi-polar compounds, such as phytosterols and isoflavone-like compounds. The objective of this study was to evaluate the immunomodulatory effects of bengkoang extracts, including petroleum ether extract (PEE), methanol extract (ME), and the ethyl acetate fraction (EAF) of bengkoang, in vitro. The immunomodulatory effects of PEE, ME, and EAF of bengkoang were determined according to the phagocytic activity of macrophages based on phagocytosis of latex beads, lymphocyte proliferation, and detection of cytokine production of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) interleukin-6 (IL-6), and interleukin-10 (IL-10) levels. Results: The phagocytic index and phagocytic capacity of ME, PEE, and EAF of bengkoang on macrophage cells were significantly increased (p < 0.05), whereas lymphocyte proliferation was unchanged compared with the control (p > 0.05), and ME of bengkoang enhanced the levels of the cytokines TNF-α and IL-6. In contrast, PEE and EAF of bengkoang decreased TNF-α and IL-6 levels compared with the control group. All of the bengkoang extracts decrease the production of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10. In conclusion, this study showed that PEE, ME, and EAF of bengkoang could increase the non-specific immune response (phagocytic activity) but had a lesser effect on the specific immune response (lymphocyte proliferation). The ME of bengkoang acts as an immunostimulant by increasing the levels of the inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-6 and decreasing those of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10.

Recombinant Adjuvanted Zoster Vaccine and Reduced Risk of Coronavirus Disease 2019 Diagnosis and Hospitalization in Older Adults.

BackgroundSome vaccines elicit nonspecific immune responses that may protect against heterologous infections. We evaluated the association between recombinant adjuvanted zoster vaccine (RZV) and coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outcomes at Kaiser Permanente Southern California.MethodsIn a cohort design, adults aged ≥50 years who received ≥1 RZV dose before 1 March 2020 were matched 1:2 to unvaccinated individuals and followed until 31 December 2020. Adjusted hazard ratios (aHRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for COVID-19 outcomes were estimated using Cox proportional hazards regression. In a test-negative design, cases had a positive severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 test and controls had only negative tests, during 1 March–31 December 2020. Adjusted odds ratios (aORs) and 95% CIs for RZV receipt were estimated using logistic regression.ResultsIn the cohort design, 149 244 RZV recipients were matched to 298 488 unvaccinated individuals. The aHRs for COVID-19 diagnosis and hospitalization were 0.84 (95% CI, .81–.87) and 0.68 (95% CI, .64–.74), respectively. In the test-negative design, 8.4% of 75 726 test-positive cases and 13.1% of 340 898 test-negative controls had received ≥1 RZV dose (aOR, 0.84 [95% CI, .81–.86]).ConclusionsRZV vaccination was associated with a 16% lower risk of COVID-19 diagnosis and 32% lower risk of hospitalization. Further study of vaccine-induced nonspecific immunity for potential attenuation of future pandemics is warranted.

Sarcodia suieae Acetyl-Xylogalactan Regulates Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) Tissue Phagocytotic Activity and Serum Indices

Sarcodia suieae acetyl-xylogalactan was reported to induce macrophage polarisation, and could positively regulate macrophage activation. In this study, we evaluated the effect of Sarcodia suieae acetyl-xylogalactan on the Nile tilapia. First, we assessed the influence of acetyl-xylogalactan on the survival, glucose uptake, and phagocytic activity of tilapia head kidney (THK) melanomacrophage, and observed increased proliferation of these cells in the MTT assay after 12 and 24 h of treatment. Glucose uptake increased in THK melanomacrophage treated with 20 and 30 μg acetyl-xylogalactan for 24 h. Their phagocytic activity was positively enhanced following exposure to acetyl-xylogalactan. Nile tilapia were fed with acetyl-xylogalactan for 4 weeks. At the end of the experiment, Nile tilapia were sacrificed, and the lipopolysaccharide-induced liver and head-kidney apoptosis was examined under reducing conditions in comparison with controls. The phagocytic activities of liver and head-kidney cells were enhanced after 4 weeks of feeding. Blood biochemical analysis revealed a reduction in glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (GOT) and glutamic pyruvic transaminase (GPT) levels after 4 weeks of feeding. Combined with in vitro and in vivo experiments results, the extracted S. suieae acetyl-xylogalactan could directly induce THK melanomacrophage proliferation, glucose uptake, and phagocytic activity. Acetyl-xylogalactan was able to induce Nile tilapia liver and head-kidney resident macrophage activity, and reduced LPS-induced liver and head-kidney cell apoptosis. S. suieae acetyl-xylogalactan may modulate Nile tilapia macrophage activation by polarising them into M1 macrophages to improve the Nile tilapia nonspecific immune response.

The Addition of Immunostimulant in Self-Formulated Feed to Improve Immunity and Growth of Juvenile Cobia (Rachycentron canadum)

The aims of the experiment were to determine optimum dietary immunostimulant level in self-formulated on nonspecific immune response and growth performance of juvenile cobia fish. Fish were kept in net cages (0.8 x 0.8 x 0.6 m 3 ) installed in fiberglass tanks which were completed with aeration and flow-through water system for 30 days. Design of the study was completely randomized design with 4 treatments, each consisting of 3 replications. Initial density was 50 fish for each replication with average body weight 4.69 g. the self-formulated feed (crude protein 46% and lipid 9%) containing three levels of immunostimulant additional levels, namely A (0.3%), B (0.5%), and as control, K (commercial feed as first control) and M (0.0% as second control without added immunostimulant. The data observed were growth performance which were consisted of absolute weight, total feed consumption, survival rate, specific growth rate, feed conversion rate and protein retention and mortality rate after challenge test with LD50 (1.0 x 10 9 CFU/ml) of pathogenic bacteria Vibrio alginolyticus. The growth performances showed that fish fed with addition of immunostimulant 0,3% (A) obtained higher absolute weight values and significantly different (p<0,05) from M, but not significantly different from K. Challenge test at the end of the study showed that treatment A had lower mortality compared to other treatments which was indicated had higher immunity level compare to other treatments. Based on the results above, it can be concluded that the self-formulated feed with added immunostimulant 0.3% (0.7% total in the feed) showed the survival rate and optimal growth performance of juvenile cobia .

Infectious Bronchitis Virus Infection of Chicken: The Essential Role of Mucosal Immunity.

Infection with either virulent or vaccine strains of infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) elicits a complex interaction of nonspecific, innate, mucosal, cellular, and humoral immunity, thereby mounting an optimal defensive response in chickens. Through this process, mucosal immunity plays an essential role in preventing infection and clearing the virus. It also assists in the development of longer lasting local immunity against IBV, mainly in the respiratory tract but also in the oviduct and gastrointestinal mucosal linings. The head-associated lymphoid tissues, particularly the Harderian gland, have an important role in the synthesis of immunoglobulin A (IgA). Levels of this immunoglobulin in lachrymal fluid often reflect the degree of protection against IBV challenge. Beyond the head, the importance of mucosal immunity has predominantly been studied in the trachea. Though IgA has been the major focus of IBV mucosal immunity investigations, the role of mucosa-associated nonspecific, innate, and cellular immune responses may also be significant. Ciliary movements and nonspecific substances in the mucosa, such as mucins and peptides, assist in the entrapment and removal of living and nonliving antigens. Mucosa-associated innate immune responses determine cascades of downstream cellular and humoral immunity against IBV. Cellular immunity, particularly involving CD4+, CD8+, and other T-cell subsets, have been studied in mucosa-associated sites, especially the trachea. The strength of cellular immunity at mucosal sites has been associated with protection against IBV. Recently, the evaluation of mucosal immunity has shifted from traditional methods to quantitative assays of mRNA transcription of immune genes. This and other molecular-based approaches will likely boost our understanding of chicken mucosal immunity against virulent and vaccine strains of IBV. It has been well accepted that mucosal immunity plays an important role in pathogenicity, vaccinal immunity, and protection conferred against virulent IBV.

Altered NCF2, NOX2 mRNA Expression Levels in Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells of Pulmonary Tuberculosis Patients.

BackgroundReactive oxygen species (ROS) generated by NADPH oxidase has a pivotal role in the nonspecific innate immune response to invading microorganisms including M. tuberculosis (MTB). NCF2 and NOX2 were considered as important functional subunits of NADPH oxidase complex; hence, this study aimed to evaluate the NCF2, NOX2 mRNA expressions in PBMC of pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) patients.MethodsA total of 79 PTB patients and 73 controls were included in our study. Quantitative real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) was used to measure the NCF2, NOX2 mRNA levels, and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis was performed to assess the diagnostic value of NCF2, NOX2 in PTB patients.ResultsWhen compared to controls, the NCF2, NOX2 mRNA levels were significantly increased in PBMC from PTB patients (P < 0.001). However, the NCF2, NOX2 mRNA levels were not associated with major clinical and laboratory data of PTB patients. Area under curve (AUC) of ROC curve analysis for NCF2 and NOX2 were 0.686 (95% CI: 0.601, 0.770) and 0.705 (95% CI: 0.623, 0.787), respectively.ConclusionAltered NCF2, NOX2 mRNA levels in PTB patients implied that these genes might play roles in PTB, and their expression levels might be potential biomarkers for the diagnosis of PTB.

The Effect of Hermetia illucens larvae Formulation as Immunostimulant on Non-Specific Immune Response of Cyprinus carpio Challenged by Aeromonas salmonicida

Cyprinus carpio is one type of freshwater fish. In Indonesia, carp outbreaks in carp since June 2002 have raised concerns, especially for fish farmers. One of the factors causing the outbreak of this disease is the bacteria Aeromonas salmonicida, which can cause fish to get sick and even die. Immunostimulants with natural ingredients that are environmentally friendly and can be used to increase the immune response of fish, one of which is maggot. The data analysis used in this study was a simple completely randomized design (CRD) with 6 treatments difference in the dose of maggot as an immunostimulant (0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, 100%) and three replications. The independent variable is the difference in the dose of maggot as an immunostimulant. The dependent variables include survival rate, total leucocytes, differential leukocytes, and water quality (pH, temperature, and DO). The FT-IR test results obtained that the best compound content in maggot flour is flavonoid compounds where these compounds can increase immune response. So, it is proven by phytochemical tests with positive maggot flour containing flavonoids, tannins, and alkaloids. In total erythrocytes, hematocrit, hemoglobin, total leukocytes, and differential leukocytes showed the best immune response in treatment C with a dose of 75% maggot.

Impacts of Aegle marmelos fruit extract as a medicinal herb on growth performance, antioxidant and immune responses, digestive enzymes, and disease resistance against Streptococcus agalactiae in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)

An experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of Aegle marmelos fruit (AMF) extract on the growth performance, biochemical parameters, immune response, antioxidative capacity, and digestive enzyme activity of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Fish were fed a diet supplemented with AMF at concentrations of 0 (AMF0; control), 5 (AMF5), 10 (AMF10), 15 (AMF15), or 20 (AMF20) g/kg for 8 weeks. The results show that the final body weight, weight gain, specific growth rate, average daily gain, and feed conversion ratio were significantly higher in fish fed AMF15 and AMF20 compared to those fed the control diet (P < 0.05). Moreover, significant increases in antioxidant enzyme activities and non-specific immune responses were observed in groups fed AMF15 and AMF20. Interestingly, the level of cholesterol decreased with increasing AMF concentrations in the diet. As dietary AMF levels increased, digestive enzyme activities significantly improved. After the feeding trial, fish were injected intraperitoneally with Streptococcus agalactiae, and the 14-day cumulative mortality was calculated. A high survival rate after challenge with S. agalactiae was observed in all groups that received AMF-supplemented feed. Therefore, the present study suggests that supplementing the diet of Nile tilapia with AMF at a concentration of 20 g/kg could encourage their growth, improve their immunity and antioxidant status, and provide strong protection against S. agalactiae.

Digestibility of insect meals for Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) and their performance for growth, feed utilization and immune responses.

This study was conducted to examine digestibility of insect meals for Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) and their utilization as fish meal substitutes. The tested insect meals were mealworm, silkworm, black soldier fly, rice grasshopper, two-spotted cricket, dynastid beetle and white-spotted flower chafer. Apparent digestibility coefficients of the tested insect meals were 83-89% for protein, 91-98% for lipid, 84-90% for energy, 77-81% for dry matter, 28-36% for chitin, 76-96% for amino acids and 89-93% for fatty acids. The amino acid availability of insect meals was high in taurine (93-96%), arginine (91-95%) and lysine (90-95%). Availability of fatty acids were 89-93% for saturated fatty acids, 90-93% for monounsaturated fatty acids and 88-93% for polyunsaturated fatty acids. For a feeding trial, a control diet was formulated using 27% tuna byproduct meal as a fish meal source and seven other diets were prepared replacing 10% tuna byproduct meal in the control diet with each insect meal. Triplicate groups of shrimp (initial body weight: 0.17 g) were fed the diets for 65 days. The growth performance was significantly improved when the shrimp were fed black soldier fly or dynastid beetle included diet. Dietary supplementation of insect meals significantly improved non-specific immune responses and antioxidant enzyme activity in the shrimp. These results indicate that the tested insect meals have high potentials to be used as a protein source that could replace fish meal in diets for the shrimp.

BCG vaccination induces enhanced frequencies of memory T cells and altered plasma levels of common γc cytokines in elderly individuals.

BCG vaccination is known to induce innate immune memory, which confers protection against heterologous infections. However, the effect of BCG vaccination on the conventional adaptive immune cells subsets is not well characterized. We investigated the impact of BCG vaccination on the frequencies of T cell subsets and common gamma c (γc) cytokines in a group of healthy elderly individuals (age 60–80 years) at one month post vaccination as part of our clinical study to examine the effect of BCG on COVID-19. Our results demonstrate that BCG vaccination induced enhanced frequencies of central (p<0.0001) and effector memory (p<0.0001) CD4+ T cells and diminished frequencies of naïve (p<0.0001), transitional memory (p<0.0001), stem cell memory (p = 0.0001) CD4+ T cells and regulatory T cells. In addition, BCG vaccination induced enhanced frequencies of central (p = 0.0008), effector (p<0.0001) and terminal effector memory (p<0.0001) CD8+ T cells and diminished frequencies of naïve (p<0.0001), transitional memory (p<0.0001) and stem cell memory (p = 0.0034) CD8+T cells. BCG vaccination also induced enhanced plasma levels of IL-7 (p<0.0001) and IL-15 (p = 0.0020) but diminished levels of IL-2 (p = 0.0033) and IL-21 (p = 0.0020). Thus, BCG vaccination was associated with enhanced memory T cell subsets as well as memory enhancing γc cytokines in elderly individuals, suggesting its ability to induce non-specific adaptive immune responses.

Fermented earthworms as a feed additive enhances non-specific immune response in catfish (Clarias gariepinus)

Fermented earthworms as a feed additive enhances non-specific immune response in catfish (Clarias gariepinus)

Recent Progress Towards Vaccines and Antibody-based Therapies Against Alzheimer's Disease.

Alzheimer's disease (AD), one of the progressive neurodegenerative disorders, is characterized by clinical features such as memory loss, acquired skill loss, apraxia, and interpersonal and social communication disorders. The AD hallmarks at the neuropathological level include intracellular neurofibrillary tangles constituted by the hyperphosphorylated tau protein as well as the senile extracellular plaques dominated by the amyloid-β (Aβ) deposits. At present, AD treatment that mainly targeted towards improving symptoms and effective drugs to delay or stop disease progression is lacking. Vaccines and antibody-based therapies are a type of natural, synthetic, and gene recombinant biological product that treat or prevent disease progression by stimulating specific or non-specific immune responses. Compared with traditional targeted drugs, vaccines and antibodybased therapies have better safety and effectiveness and can even maintain the expression and stability of Aβ and Tau proteins in patients for a long time. Logically, vaccines and antibody-based therapies are somewhat different from traditional drugs because these drugs can achieve the therapeutic effect of AD by activating immune cells and regulating the immune system of patients themselves, thereby clearing disease-related proteins and long-term survival. Complete cure is also observed in some patients after receiving the immunotherapy. Currently available vaccines and antibody-based therapies mainly target Aβ and phosphorylated tau proteins. There are 44 vaccines and antibodybased therapies for AD, among which nine drugs are discontinued, three drugs are inactive, eleven drugs are in clinical phase 1, twelve drugs are in clinical phase 2, and seven drugs are in clinical phase 3. Currently, no vaccines and antibody-based therapies have been approved for AD treatment. In this paper, we review and analyse the research progress of vaccines and antibody-based therapies that are used to treat AD.

Effects of dietary trehalose on growth, trehalose content, non-specific immunity, gene expression and desiccation resistance of juvenile red claw crayfish (Cherax quadricarinatus)

This study was performed to investigate the effects of dietary trehalose on growth, muscle composition, non-specific immune responses, gene expression and desiccation resistance of juvenile red claw crayfish (Cherax quadricarinatus). A total of 540 (body weight of 0.41 ± 0.05) crayfish were randomly divided into six groups for a feeding experiment. Six diets with trehalose levels at 0 (Diet 1), 1 (Diet 2), 2 (Diet 3), 5 (Diet 4), 10 (Diet 5) and 15 (Diet 6) g kg−1 were prepared to feed juvenile red claw crayfish for 8 weeks. The results showed that the weight gain rate (WGR) and specific growth rate (SGR) of crayfish in Diet 4, Diet 5 and Diet 6 groups were significantly improved compared with the control group (Diet 1). Muscle crude protein contents of crayfish fed Diet 4, Diet 5 and Diet 6 were significantly higher than those of the control group. The activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and alkaline phosphatase (AKP) in hepatopancreas and hemolymph of crayfish for Diet 4, Diet 5, and Diet 6 groups were significantly increased while malondialdehyde (MDA) content was significantly reduced when compared with the control. The total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC), catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activities in the hepatopancreas and hemolymph of crayfish fed Diet 5 and Diet 6 were significantly higher than those in the control group. However, acid phosphatase (ACP) activity was not significantly different among all experimental groups. The hepatopancreas and intestine trehalose contents of crayfish showed an upward trend with the increase of dietary trehalose levels. Compared with the control group, supplementation of 5–15 g kg−1 trehalose in the feed up-regulated the expression levels of GPx, C-type lysozyme (C-LZM), antilipolysacchride factor (ALF), facilitated trehalose transporter homolog isoform X2 (Tret1-2) and facilitated trehalose transporter isoform X4 (Tret1-4) mRNA. In addition, supplementation of 5–15 g kg−1 trehalose in the feed could improve the survival rate of red claw crayfish under desiccation stress. These results suggested that supplementation of 5–15 g kg−1 trehalose in feed could significantly improve the growth performance, muscle protein, non-specific immunity and desiccation resistance of juvenile red claw crayfish.

Recent Progress in Interferon Therapy for Myeloid Malignancies.

Myeloid malignancies are a heterogeneous group of clonal haematopoietic disorders, caused by abnormalities in haematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) and myeloid progenitor cells that originate in the bone marrow niche. Each of these disorders are unique and present their own challenges with regards to treatment. Acute myeloid leukaemia (AML) is considered the most aggressive myeloid malignancy, only potentially curable with intensive cytotoxic chemotherapy with or without allogeneic haematopoietic stem cell transplantation. In comparison, patients diagnosed with chronic myeloid leukaemia (CML) and treated with tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) have a high rate of long-term survival. However, drug resistance and relapse are major issues in both these diseases. A growing body of evidence suggests that Interferons (IFNs) may be a useful therapy for myeloid malignancies, particularly in circumstances where patients are resistant to existing front-line therapies and have risk of relapse following haematopoietic stem cell transplant. IFNs are a major class of cytokines which are known to play an integral role in the non-specific immune response. IFN therapy has potential as a combination therapy in AML patients to reduce the impact of minimal residual disease on relapse. Alongside this, IFNs can potentially sensitize leukaemic cells to TKIs in resistant CML patients. There is evidence also that IFNs have a therapeutic role in myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs) such as polycythaemia vera (PV) and primary myelofibrosis (PMF), where they can restore polyclonality in patients. Novel formulations have improved the clinical effectiveness of IFNs. Low dose pegylated IFN formulations improve pharmacokinetics and improve patient tolerance to therapies, thereby minimizing the risk of haematological toxicities. Herein, we will discuss recent developments and the current understanding of the molecular and clinical implications of Type I IFNs for the treatment of myeloid malignancies.

GAMBARAN AKTIVASI SISTEM IMUN IKAN NILA (Oreochromis niloticus) TERHADAP PEMBERIAN DAUN SANGKAREHO (Callicarpa longifolia Lam.) MELALUI PAKAN

One way to improve the quality of the seed from cultured fish is to increase the immune response so that it is immune to disease attacks. This study aims to increase the non-specific immune response of tilapia by giving the optimum dose of sangkareho leaf extract. The treatment given was the difference in the dose of the leaf extract, where the difference in the dose was as follows: A = dose 0 gr/kg feed, B = dose 5 gr/kg feed, C = dose 10 gr/kg feed, D = dose 15 gr /kg of feed, and E = dose of 20 g/kg of feed. The main parameters observed were the examination of the number of Hb, He, erythrocytes, leukocytes, and survival rate (SR). Blood sampling during the study was carried out on the 16th day after being given the extract of the sangkareho leaf, and infected with A. hydrophila bacteria. The results showed that the use of the extract of the bay leaf as an immunostimulant affected the number of Hb, He, erythrocytes, leukocytes, and the survival rate of tilapia infected by Aeromonas hydropila.

Long noncoding RNAs: Emerging players regulating innate immune memory in the red flour beetle

A variety of strategies have been evolved to eradicate invading microbes. Phagocytes have developed in vertebrates and invertebrates to confer a non-specific immune response to pathogens. Besides, vertebrates have evolved lymphocytes to develop memory cells that can quickly respond upon the next exposure to the same pathogen. Although lymphocytes are absent in invertebrates, historical evidence, dating back to the 1920s, indicated the presence of immune memory in invertebrates. However, the concept of long-lasting non-specific defense predominated until recent evidence has been introduced in the first decade of the 21st century. Although more evidence has been introduced later, the molecular mechanism underlying the innate immune memory is largely undefined in invertebrates. Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) have demonstrated a role in regulating various biological processes, including immune response. In this review, we will explore the potential role of lncRNAs in developing innate immune memory in the red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum).

Antibacterial activity of silver nanoparticles against antibiotic‐resistant Aeromonas veronii infections in Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus (L.), in vitro and in vivo assay

Antibiotic-resistant Aeromonas veronii isolates (4) were identified from moribund Oreochromis niloticus by phenotypic and genotypic characterization using 16S rDNA gene sequence analysis. Antibacterial efficacy of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) was assessed in vitro and in vivo against A. veronii isolates. A minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and 48 h lethal concentration 50% (LC50) for AgNPs were estimated to be 3.125 μg/ml and 8.77 mg/L respectively. Four hundred fifty fish were divided into 10 groups in triplicate (15/replica). Two control groups were untreated with AgNPs: The first (G1) was not infected, whereas the second (G2) was experimentally infected with A. veronii. AgNPs were added to aquarium water with fish either noninfected (G3–G6) or infected (G7–G10) with A. veronii. AgNPs concentrations were 100, 250, 500 and 750 μg/L, respectively, for both sets of fish groups. Fish infected with A. veronii but untreated with AgNPs showed septicaemic symptoms, a high mortality rate (71%) and poorer haematological parameters (red blood cells [RBCs], haemoglobin concentration [Hb], hematocrit [HCT%], mean cell volume [MCV] and mean cell haemoglobin [MCH]); impaired nonspecific immune responses (total protein, albumin, globulin and lysozymes); reduced antioxidant capacity (catalase [CAT], peroxidase and superoxide dismutase [SOD]); a significant increase in creatinine, uric acid, alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP); and genotoxic effects in gills. Treatment with AgNPs increased fish survival; improved haematological, immunological and antioxidant activities; and optimized liver and kidney function. The most favourable outcome was seen using an AgNPs concentration of 750 μg/L. Various histopathological changes were found among experimental fish.

Local changes in the type 3 interferons in women with human papillomavirus infection before and after treatment with Inosine pranobex

Papillomavirus infection remains one of the main causes of pathological conditions of the female reproductive tract. Innate immunity is one of the first protective mechanisms against this infection, with interferon system being one of its elements. Due to ability of HPV for immune evasion, and lack of uniform clinical recommendations and protocols for management and treatment of women with papillomavirus infection, further studies on probable usage of immunomodulatory drugs are an urgent issue for both fundamental and clinical medicine. Currently, a lot of antiviral and immunomodulatory drugs is used in the treatment of virusassociated diseases of urogenital tract associated with a Th1/Th2 type imbalance. However, the drugs with Inosine pranobex as active substance seem to be the most effective and safe drugs for PVI. The aim of our study was to determine type 3 interferons in the cervical mucus of the women before and after Inosine pranobex therapy.We have examined 42 patients with papillomavirus infection treated with drugs with the active substance Inosine pranobex. The average age of women was 31±4.1 years. The levels of IL-29 (IFNλ1) and IL-28 (IFNλ3)in cervical mucosa were determined using specific reagents from RD Diagnostics Inc. (USA). The levels of IL-29 (IFNλ1) were increased in all the groups compared to controls. After treatment, these indexes weresignificantly higher, compared with the group before treatment. IL-28 (IFNλ3) had opposite results to IL-29 (IFNλ1). Thus, in the groups of samples taken before and after therapy, the indexes increased in comparison with the group before treatment, demonstrating the course of recovery towards reference values. The dynamics of studied indexes may be associated with early evaluation period, due to longer duration of immunological changes leading to induction of promoter gene expression, as well as due to insufficient stimulation of these genes. Usage of Inosine pranobex was associated with significantly increased levels of IL-29 (IFNλ1) as soon as a month after therapy. Taking into account genetic homology of type 3 interferons, we may assume that the use of Inosine pranobex drugs in the patients with papillomavirus infection is substantiated, and it may positively affect prognosis of the disease, due to induction of the non-specific immune response.