Nonword Repetition Test Research Articles

Extending Use of the NRT to Preschool-Age Children With and Without Specific Language Impairment

The purpose of this study was to assess the diagnostic accuracy of the Nonword Repetition Test (NRT; Dollaghan & Campbell, 1998) using a sample of 4- and 5-year-olds with and without specific language impairment (SLI) and to evaluate its feasibility for use in universal screening. The NRT was administered to 29 children with SLI and 47 age-matched children with typical development. Diagnostic accuracy was computed using alternative scoring methods, which treated out-of-inventory phonemes either as errors or as unscorable. To estimate accuracy in a universal screening context, the probability of identifying a child at risk for language impairment was computed using the prevalence of SLI (7%) as the base rate. Diagnostic accuracy was acceptable using both scoring methods. The resulting likelihood ratios (LR+ = 22.66, 19.43; LR- = .05, .05) were similar to those reported for older children. The probability of accurate detection of children with SLI in the general population increased from 7% to 61%. However, this value suggests that many false positives could be expected. The NRT yielded results similar to those reported for older children. However, despite its strengths, the NRT is not sufficient for screening the general population of 4- and 5-year-olds.

Towards a Typology of Word-initial Consonant Clusters: Evidence from the Acquisition of Greek

AbstractIn this paper, I study the production of consonant clusters by Greek children and examine the consequences of the acquisition data for phonological theory, with particular emphasis on the word-initial position. Using a non-word repetition test, I tested the order of acquisition of wordinitial and word-medial s+obstruent (sT), obstruent-obstruent (TT) and obstruent-sonorant (TR) clusters in 59 children. The results provide evidence against any analysis that assigns identical status to word-initial sT and word-initial TT, such as models of extrasyllabicity, and lend support to an alternative analysis of the beginning of the word, based on Lowenstamm's (1999) initial ON hypothesis and CVCV theory (Scheer 2004).

Normen für den Mottier-Test bei 4- bis 6-jährigen Kindern

The Mottier Test--a diagnostic test of non-word repetition (30 nonsense syllables of varying length)--is designed to measure phonological processing. To assess individual results in 4- to 6-year-olds, only reference values based on raw scores published in 1981 are available. Data was collected in 2006 in two German federal states for the purposes of updating reference values. A sample of 308 nursery-school children (154 boys; 154 girls) from Lower Saxony and Northrhine-Westphalia were examined (4-year-olds: n=86; 5-year-olds: n=126; 6-year-olds: n=96). Boy and girls performed more or less the same (mean correctly repeated non-words: boys 13.44; girls 14.08; p=0.15). However, older children performed better than younger ones (4-year-olds: 11.19, SD 3.93; 5-year-olds: 13.95, SD 4.02; 6-year-olds: 15.81, SD 3.97). The difference between the three age groups was highly significant: 4- and 5-year-olds (U=3358.5; p=.000); 5- and 6-year-olds (U=4551.5; p=.002); 4- and 6-year-olds (U=1658; p=.000). The same was true for the difference in the half-yearly performance of the 5-year-olds (60-65 months old: 12.78, SD 3.67; 66-71 months old: 14.96, SD 4.07; U=1317; p=.001). Percentile ranks (and T-scores) specific to age were provided. Normative data to evaluate intra- and interindividual performances among German-speaking children aged 4-6 years old contributes to the improvement of diagnostic assurance.

The Diagnostic Accuracy of a New Test of Early Nonword Repetition for Differentiating Late Talking and Typically Developing Children

To assess the diagnostic accuracy of a new Test of Early Nonword Repetition (TENR) for 2-year-old children. 232 British-English-speaking children aged 27 (+/-3) months were assessed on 3 standardized tests (receptive and expressive vocabulary and visual processing) and a novel nonword repetition (NWR) test. Parents completed a British adaptation of the MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventory: Words and Sentences (CDI:WS-UK; Klee & Harrison, 2001). The diagnostic accuracy of two versions (1-3 syllables and 1-4 syllables) of a new NWR test was examined. Standard diagnostic accuracy measures of sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative likelihood ratios, and diagnostic odds ratios were generated. 177 children (80%) completed the 1-3 syllable task, and 96 children (73%) completed the 1-4 syllable task. The 1-3 syllable version produced a positive likelihood ratio (LR+) of 7.8 (confidence interval [CI] = 4.5-13.6) and a negative likelihood ratio (LR-) of .28 (CI = .12-.65). The 1-4 syllable version of the NWR test produced a LR+ of 14.88 (CI = 6.1-36.2) and a LR- of .13 (CI = .02-.83). The TENR could be useful for identifying 2-year-old children at risk of language impairment.

CMIP and ATP2C2 Modulate Phonological Short-Term Memory in Language Impairment

Specific language impairment (SLI) is a common developmental disorder characterized by difficulties in language acquisition despite otherwise normal development and in the absence of any obvious explanatory factors. We performed a high-density screen of SLI1, a region of chromosome 16q that shows highly significant and consistent linkage to nonword repetition, a measure of phonological short-term memory that is commonly impaired in SLI. Using two independent language-impaired samples, one family-based (211 families) and another selected from a population cohort on the basis of extreme language measures (490 cases), we detected association to two genes in the SLI1 region: that encoding c-maf-inducing protein (CMIP, minP = 5.5 × 10−7 at rs6564903) and that encoding calcium-transporting ATPase, type2C, member2 (ATP2C2, minP = 2.0 × 10−5 at rs11860694). Regression modeling indicated that each of these loci exerts an independent effect upon nonword repetition ability. Despite the consistent findings in language-impaired samples, investigation in a large unselected cohort (n = 3612) did not detect association. We therefore propose that variants in CMIP and ATP2C2 act to modulate phonological short-term memory primarily in the context of language impairment. As such, this investigation supports the hypothesis that some causes of language impairment are distinct from factors that influence normal language variation. This work therefore implicates CMIP and ATP2C2 in the etiology of SLI and provides molecular evidence for the importance of phonological short-term memory in language acquisition.

Non-word repetition in young school-age children with language impairment and/or neuropsychiatric disorder

We wanted to test the hypothesis that neuropsychiatric disorder (NPD) with language impairment (LI) is a more severe variant of NPD than NPD without LI, and that this variant can be easily picked up by a non-word repetition (NWR) task. We therefore tested 56 (mean 7.6, range 6.1–9.5 years) children divided into three subgroups: one with LI only ( n = 8), one with NPD only ( n = 16) and one with a combination of LI and NPD ( n = 32). We used a Swedish NWR test, a real word repetition test, the Verbal Comprehension and Freedom from Distractibility factor of the WISC-III. All three subgroups had difficulties with NWR and real word repetition compared to the norm, but the within-subgroup variations were considerable. The subgroup with NPD only performed best on both NWR and real word repetitions, but remarkably poorly given that they had never been noted for having language problems. NPD with LI consistently had the lowest scores. Of the three subgroups, only NPD with LI scored lower than the normal range on Verbal Comprehension and Freedom from Distractibility. Significant correlations were found between NWR on the one hand, and Freedom from Distractibility and Verbal Comprehension, on the other, indicating that poor results on a NWR test is probably not a “clean” measure of speech and language impairment, but also taps into other neuropsychological constructs, including executive dysfunction. In conclusion, the study confirmed the hypothesis that NPD with LI constitutes a more severe variant of NPD, and that this variant can easily be picked up by a quick and easy NWR screening test.

Investigating the psycholinguistic correlates of speechreading in preschool age children

Previous research has found that newborn infants can match phonetic information in the lips and voice from as young as ten weeks old. There is evidence that access to visual speech is necessary for normal speech development. Although we have an understanding of this early sensitivity, very little research has investigated older children's ability to speechread whole words. The aim of this study was to identify aspects of preschool children's linguistic knowledge and processing ability that may contribute to speechreading ability. We predicted a significant correlation between receptive vocabulary and speechreading, as well as phonological working memory to be a predictor of speechreading performance. Seventy-six children (n = 76) aged between 2;10 and 4;11 years participated. Children were given three pictures and were asked to point to the picture that they thought that the experimenter had silently mouthed (ten trials). Receptive vocabulary and phonological working memory were also assessed. The results were analysed using Pearson correlations and multiple regressions. The results demonstrated that the children could speechread at a rate greater than chance. Pearson correlations revealed significant, positive correlations between receptive vocabulary and speechreading score, phonological error rate and age. Further correlations revealed significant, positive relationships between The Children's Test of Non-Word Repetition (CNRep) and speechreading score, phonological error rate and age. Multiple regression analyses showed that receptive vocabulary best predicts speechreading ability over and above phonological working memory. The results suggest that preschool children are capable of speechreading, and that this ability is related to vocabulary size. This suggests that children aged between 2;10 and 4;11 are sensitive to visual information in the form of audio-visual mappings. We suggest that current and future therapies are correct to include visual feedback as a therapeutic tool; however, future research needs to be conducted in order to elucidate further the role of speechreading in development.

Reference values of nonword repetition test for Brazilian Portuguese-speaking children

ABSTRACTEvaluation of the phonological working memory (PWM) through repetition of nonwords can provide important information on the linguistic abilities of children, thus differentiating those with and without communication disorders. Objective: The aim of this study was to obtain reference values in the Nonword Repetition Test (NWRT) in order to investigate the performance of children without language disorders concerning this type of memory. Material and Methods: The study was conducted on 480 normal children of both genders aged 4 years to 8 years and 11 months, attending preschool and elementary school. The NWRT consisted of repeating 20 (children up to 4 years) or 40 (for children aged 5 years or more) invented words with 2 to 5 syllables. The results were subjected to descriptive statistical analysis. Comparison between ages and between the number of syllables in nonwords was performed by the Tukey's multiple-comparison test and one-way analysis of variance, at a significance value of p<0.05. Results: There was statistically significant difference (p<0.05) in performance between children of different age groups, except between 7- and 8-year-olds. The analysis also showed statistically significant difference (p<0.05) in the number of syllables between the different age groups. Conclusions: The reference values obtained indicated an improvement in performance with the increase of age of children, indicating an improvement in the storage of verbal material in the PWM. The performance was worsened with the increase in the number of syllables in words, demonstrating that the greater the number of syllables, the greater is the difficulty in storing verbal material.

Phonological short-term memory, working memory and foreign language performance in intensive language learning

In our research we addressed the question what the relationship is between phonological short-term and working memory capacity and performance in an end-of-year reading, writing, listening, speaking and use of English test. The participants of our study were 121 secondary school students aged 15–16 in the first intensive language training year of a bilingual education program in Hungary. The participants performed a non-word repetition test and took a Cambridge First Certificate Exam. Fifty students were also tested with a backward digit span test, measuring their working memory capacity. Our study indicates that phonological short-term memory capacity plays a different role in the case of beginners and pre-intermediate students in intensive language learning. The backward digit span test correlated very highly with the overall English language competence, as well as with reading, listening, speaking and use of English (vocabulary and grammar) test scores.

Befunde zur Reliabilität und Validität des Mottier-Tests in einer klinisch-sozialpädiatrischen Stichprobe

BACKGROUND: The Mottier-test (a test of nonword repetition) is supposed to measure phonological short-term memory and differentiation of phonemes. Although it is widely used in german-speaking countries, few data on its reliability and validity have been published. METHOD: Data were gathered under routine conditions of clinical diagnosis in a community mental health service (social pediatric center) for early diagnosis and early intervention. The Mottier-test was administered to 322 children (aged 4-15 years) diagnosed with developmental disabilities, speech and language impairments, behavior disorders, or affective disorders. In addition to ICD-10 diagnoses and socio-demographical variables, intelligence (K-ABC, SON-R 2S-7, WPPSI) and various aspects of phonological processing were assessed. Retest reliability was established for a sample of 67 children. RESULTS: Reliability coefficients ranged from .79 to .88. Correlations with all measures of phonological processing were significant (low to moderate effect sizes). The validity of the Mottier-test was supported by its differential validity for different clinical groups, children with auditory perception disorders obtaining the lowest scores. Discriminative validity compared to intelligence was mainly supported. Mottier-test scores were unrelated to IQ as measured by SON-R 2S -7 and WPSSI (german adaptation) verbal and performance scales, but correlated positively with the K-ABC mental processing scale. In regression analysis, only sequential processing - but not simultaneous processing and achievement - contributed significantly to the prediction of Mottier-test scores. CONCLUSIONS: Data on reliability and validity support the potential of the Mottier-Test to identify children who are in need of a more detailed assessment of auditory perception. However, a representative and up to date standardization of the Mottier-test is required.

Linking working memory and long‐term memory: a computational model of the learning of new words

The nonword repetition (NWR) test has been shown to be a good predictor of children's vocabulary size. NWR performance has been explained using phonological working memory, which is seen as a critical component in the learning of new words. However, no detailed specification of the link between phonological working memory and long-term memory (LTM) has been proposed. In this paper, we present a computational model of children's vocabulary acquisition (EPAM-VOC) that specifies how phonological working memory and LTM interact. The model learns phoneme sequences, which are stored in LTM and mediate how much information can be held in working memory. The model's behaviour is compared with that of children in a new study of NWR, conducted in order to ensure the same nonword stimuli and methodology across ages. EPAM-VOC shows a pattern of results similar to that of children: performance is better for shorter nonwords and for wordlike nonwords, and performance improves with age. EPAM-VOC also simulates the superior performance for single consonant nonwords over clustered consonant nonwords found in previous NWR studies. EPAM-VOC provides a simple and elegant computational account of some of the key processes involved in the learning of new words: it specifies how phonological working memory and LTM interact; makes testable predictions; and suggests that developmental changes in NWR performance may reflect differences in the amount of information that has been encoded in LTM rather than developmental changes in working memory capacity.

Nonword Repetition: A Comparison of Tests

This study compared performance of children on 2 tests of nonword repetition to investigate the factors that may contribute to the well-documented nonword repetition deficit in specific language impairment (SLI). Twelve children with SLI age 7 to 11 years, 12 age-matched control children, and 12 control children matched for language ability completed 2 tests of nonword repetition: the Children's Test of Nonword Repetition (CNRep) and the Nonword Repetition Test (NRT). The children with SLI performed significantly more poorly on both tests than typically developing children of the same age. The SLI group was impaired on the CNRep but not the NRT relative to younger children with similar language abilities when adjustments were made for differences in general cognitive ability. The children with SLI repeated the lengthiest nonwords and the nonwords containing consonant clusters significantly less accurately than the control groups. The evidence suggests that the nonword repetition deficit in SLI may arise from a number of factors, including verbal short-term memory, lexical knowledge, and output processes.

A Swedish non‐word repetition test for preschool children

A Swedish non-word repetition test for preschool children was constructed with the aim of measuring short-term phonological memory, which has been shown to correlate with language development and language proficiency. Normative data based on results for 200 children four to six years of age are presented. An item analysis of the original 30-item test resulted in a shortened 24 non-word version found suitable for four- to six-year old children. Results for this shortened version, which had a Cronbach's alpha of 0.73, showed longer non-words to be more difficult to repeat than shorter ones, and significant effects of age and compatibility of the tester's and the child's accent, but not of gender. The results are discussed within the framework of Baddeley's working memory model.

Nonword Repetition and Sentence Repetition as Clinical Markers of Specific Language Impairment: The Case of Cantonese

Recent research suggests that nonword repetition (NWR) and sentence repetition (SR) tasks can be used to discriminate between children with SLI and their typically developing age-matched (TDAM) and younger (TDY) peers. Fourteen Cantonese-speaking children with SLI and 30 of their TDAM and TDY peers were compared on NWR and SR tasks. NWR of IN nonwords (CV combinations attested in the language) and OUT nonwords (CV combinations unattested in the language) were compared. SR performance was compared using 4 different scoring methods. The SLI group did not score significantly lower than the TDAM group on the test of NWR (overall results were TDAM = SLI > TDY). There were nonsignificant group differences on IN syllables but not on OUT syllables. The results do not suggest a limitation in phonological working memory in Cantonese-speaking children with SLI. The SR task discriminated between children and their TDAM peers but not between children with SLI and their TDY peers matched for mean length of utterance. SR but not NWR discriminates between children with SLI and their TDAM peers. Poorer NWR for English-speaking children with SLI might be attributable to weaker use of the redintegration strategy in word repetition. Further cross-linguistic investigations of processing strategies are required.

Errors in nonword repetition: bridging short- and long-term memory

According to the working memory model, the phonological loop is the component of working memory specialized in processing and manipulating limited amounts of speech-based information. The Children's Test of Nonword Repetition (CNRep) is a suitable measure of phonological short-term memory for English-speaking children, which was validated by the Brazilian Children's Test of Pseudoword Repetition (BCPR) as a Portuguese-language version. The objectives of the present study were: i) to investigate developmental aspects of the phonological memory processing by error analysis in the nonword repetition task, and ii) to examine phoneme (substitution, omission and addition) and order (migration) errors made in the BCPR by 180 normal Brazilian children of both sexes aged 4-10, from preschool to 4th grade. The dominant error was substitution [F(3,525) = 180.47; P < 0.0001]. The performance was age-related [F(4,175) = 14.53; P < 0.0001]. The length effect, i.e., more errors in long than in short items, was observed [F(3,519) = 108.36; P < 0.0001]. In 5-syllable pseudowords, errors occurred mainly in the middle of the stimuli, before the syllabic stress [F(4,16) = 6.03; P = 0.003]; substitutions appeared more at the end of the stimuli, after the stress [F(12,48) = 2.27; P = 0.02]. In conclusion, the BCPR error analysis supports the idea that phonological loop capacity is relatively constant during development, although school learning increases the efficiency of this system. Moreover, there are indications that long-term memory contributes to holding memory trace. The findings were discussed in terms of distinctiveness, clustering and redintegration hypotheses.

The rapid screen of concussion: An evaluation of the non-word repetition test for use in mTBI research

Primary objectives: (1) To investigate the Nonword Repetition test (NWR) as an index of sub-vocal rehearsal deficits after mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI); (2) to assess the reliability, validity and sensitivity of the NWR; and (3) to compare the NWR to more sensitive tests of verbal memory.Research design: An independent groups design.Methods and procedures: Study 1 administered the NWR to 46 mTBI and 61 uninjured controls with the Rapid Screen of Concussion (RSC). Study 2 compared mTBI, orthopaedic and uninjured participants on the NWR and the Hopkins Verbal Learning Test (HVLT-R).Main outcomes and results: The NWR did not improve the diagnostic accuracy of the RSC. However, it is reliable and indexes sub-vocal rehearsal speed. These findings provide evidence that although the current form of the NWR lacks sensitivity to the impact of mTBI, the development of a more sensitive test of sub-vocal rehearsal deficits following mTBI is warranted.

Nonword repetition skills in young children who do and do not stutter

The purpose of this study was to assess the nonword repetition skills of 24 children who do (CWS; n = 12) and do not stutter (CWNS; n = 12) between the ages of 3;0 and 5;2. Findings revealed that CWS produced significantly fewer correct two- and three-syllable nonword repetitions and made significantly more phoneme errors on three-syllable nonwords relative to CWNS. In addition, there was a significant relationship between performance on a test of expressive phonology and nonword repetition for CWS, but not CWNS. Findings further revealed no significant fluctuation in fluency as nonwords increased in length. Taken together, findings lend support to previous work, suggesting that nonword repetition skills differ for CWS compared with CWNS, and that these findings cannot be attributed to (a) weak language performance on the part of CWS, or (b) the occurrence of stuttering in the course of nonword production. Educational objectives: After reading this article, the learner will be able to: (a) describe one common means of assessing phonological working memory in children; (b) summarize the performance differences of children who stutter compared to peers on a nonword repetition task; (c) compare the results of the present study with previous work in this area.

Habilidades de memória de trabalho e o grau de severidade do desvio fonológico

Working memory. To verify the performance of working memory abilities and their relation with the severity of phonological disorders. 45 children, with ages between 5.0 and 7.11 years, with evolutional phonological disorders (EFD), 17 female and 18 male, were evaluated. All subjects were assessed using the Child Phonological Evaluation proposed by Yavas et al. (1991). The severity of the disorder was determined by the Percentage of Correct Consonants (PCC) proposed by Shriberg and Kwiatkowski (1982), classifying the phonological disorder as severe, moderate-severe, average-moderate and average. After that, subtest 5 of the Psycholinguistic Abilities Test (ITPA--Bogossian & Santos, 1977) and the non-word repetition test (Kessler, 1997) were applied. After analyzing the data according the statistical tests of Kruskal Wallis and Duncan, it was verified that the performance of moderate-severe and severe individuals in the non-word repetition test was inferior to that of average-moderate and average individuals. However, performance results in the digit repetition test did not present a positive correlation with severity. The performance of phonological memory has a relation with the severity of phonological disorders. This allows us to accept the idea that the phonologic memory is related to speech production. Regarding the central executor, the results indicate that the performance in digit repetition, used to assess the central executor, did not present a correlation with the severity of the disorder. This can be justified by the fact that the central executor is more directly related to vocabulary acquisition and is responsible for processing and storing information.

Nonword Repetition and Language Development in 4-Year-Old Children With and Without a History of Early Language Delay

This study examined the usefulness of the Nonword Repetition Test (NRT; C. Dollaghan & T. F. Campbell, 1998) with 4-year-old children and the relationship among the NRT, language, and other aspects of mental processing. The NRT was administered to 64 children at 4 years of age; 44 had a history of typical language development (HTD), and 20 had a history of language delay (HLD) at 16 months of age. Study 1 compared methods of scoring phoneme errors to determine whether the NRT was appropriate for this age group. Study 2 examined whether the NRT differentiated HTD from HLD. Study 3 examined the relations among scores on the NRT and standardized tests of language and mental processing. The NRT was found to be appropriate for 4-year-old children. Although all children had normal language abilities at the time of the study, the NRT (and several aspects of language and mental processing) differentiated between HTD and HLD. Relations among the NRT and other measures of language and mental processing were different from those previously reported, an unexpected finding that is inconsistent with traditional accounts of working memory and its relation to language development. Potential explanations are explored, and some directions for future research are suggested.

Distinct genetic influences on grammar and phonological short‐term memory deficits: evidence from 6‐year‐old twins

Children with language impairments have limitations of phonological short-term memory (STM) and have distinctive problems with certain aspects of grammar. Both deficits have been proposed as phenotypic markers of heritable language impairment. We studied 173 twin pairs, selected to be over-representative of children with risk of developmental language impairment, using a battery of standardized language and intelligence tests, a test of nonword repetition to index phonological STM and two elicitation tasks to assess use of verb tense marking. As predicted, the phonological STM and the verb tense measures both discriminated children with risk of language impairment from low risk children, and DeFries-Fulker analysis showed that impairments on both tasks were significantly heritable. However, there was minimal phenotypic and etiological overlap between the two deficits, suggesting that different genes are implicated in causing these two kinds of language difficulty. From an evolutionary perspective, these data are consistent with the view that language is a complex function that depends on multiple underlying skills with distinct genetic origins.